Nursing Professionalism Essay - 2432 Words

Nursing Professionalism XXXXX Nursing XXXX Professor XXXXX XXXXX, 2012 Abstract Professionalism is a dynamic combination of several aspects of nursing. I think that the cores of nursing professionalism is caring and serving. This article examines the concept of professionalism in nursing along with my personal decision to enter this field. I got into the nursing profession because I wanted to help people and be able to advocate for their needs. Through my experience, I realize that nursing is a profession, not just a job. The article by LaSala and Nelson supports that nursing professionalism encompasses more than just professional appearance and should be considered in a variety of different settings, including the job interview†¦show more content†¦I liked the idea that the nurse could be directly involved in the client care and decision making process. I decided that I wanted work in a position where I could advocate and have more control over patient case, so I decided to return to school. I continued to work as a medical assistant as took my pre requisite classes. The longer I worked as a registered medical assistant, the more confirmation I got that I wanted more decision-making responsibility and more exposure to the clinical aspect of client care. I initially wanted to obtain my bachelor’s degree in nursing, but I realized that I would be able to actually practice as a nurse sooner if I obtained by associates degree in nursing (ADN). I was always very vocal to my family and friends, that my associate’s degree was just to get my foot in the door and start practicing, but ultimately, I wanted to obtain my nurse practitioner’s license. So, when I decided to re-enroll in the RN to BSN program, it did not come as a surprise to any of my family or friends. I generally work with two other nurses at my job. My immediate supervisor, who has been a practicing RN for over 20 years, fully supports my decision to obtain my bachelor’s degree in nursing (BSN). In fact, I believe that my pursuit of a BSN has inspired her to do the same. The other nurse I work with does not understand why I would â€Å"waste† my time in obtaining my nurse practitioner’s license. She appearsShow MoreRelatedProfessionalism In Nursing1297 Words   |  6 Pagesno harm†. The history of nursing initially begins with Florence Nightingale. Before her era nurses had a tarnished reputation (Glasper, 2017). They were poorly educated and incompetent people. Nurses such as Mrs. Bedford Fenwick wanted to change the image of nursing. They did this by leading a campaign for professionalism. Which led to the culminated Nurse Bill receiving is royal assent in December 1919 (Glasper, 2017). July 27, 1921 was the official opening of the nursing register, there are currentlyRead MoreProfessionalism in Nursing2404 Words   |  10 Pagesprofessions in which professionalism is of the highest reputation, and nursing is among them. In the area of nursing, there is much importance to be placed with the improvement of professionalism within the profession. Nursing is a profession that depends on practitioners to perform in a way that characterized the goodness of the wider discipline, as all nurses are in a position of accountability and responsibility. This essay will further look into the topic of professionalism in nursing, the role of aRead MoreNursing Professionalism And The Profession Of Nursing1308 Words   |  6 Pages Nursing, at its inception, was a service provided mostly by women. Far from a profession, it was considered a vocation; often a mere extension of the wife/mother role. Nurses were perceived as servants to the physicians with little power or ability to function independently. The predominant male presence in medicine, lack of formal education offered to nurses, and the subservient nature of the work significantly hindered its professionalization. Over time, as educational standards were createdRead MoreProfessionalism: The Nursing Profession778 Words   |  3 PagesProfessionalism: The Nursing Profession Professionalism is something that is practiced on a daily basis by people in many different careers. Atsede Fantahun (2014) said, â€Å"professionalism is defined as the conceptualization of obligations, attributes, interactions, attitudes, and role behaviors required of professionals in relationship to individual clients and to society as a whole† (p. 2). A professional is expected to display competent and skillful behaviors in relationship with their professionRead MoreProfessionalism Of The Nursing Professional1007 Words   |  5 Pages Professionalism in the Workplace Marjorie Lopez Medical Surgical Nursing 144 February 15, 2015 Cathy Westberry 2 Professionalism in nursing is a fundamental factor between a profession and society that is based on trust and putting the needs of patients above all other considerations. The aim of this paper is to identify the characteristics of the nursing professional. These characteristics include motivation, communication skills, solving problems and making decisions, managingRead MoreNursing Professionalism Essay1675 Words   |  7 PagesWhat is Nursing Professionalism? Cathy Soto Nursing 408 Transitions in Professional Nursing Linda Jacobson 9/21/2011 Abstract According to Maister (1997) true professionalism means the pursuit of excellence, not just competence. Nurses must be competent in their pursuit of excellence. According to the American Association of Colleges of Nursing Position Statement, rapidly expanding clinical knowledge and mounting complexities in health care mandate that professional nurses possessRead More Professionalism in Nursing Essay996 Words   |  4 Pageswhen being evaluated on professionalism, a person is judged based on the clients; Attitude, Values, Communication techniques, and approachability. Clients who display a committed, dependable attitude will benefit more from work exerted, and overall be rewarded with incentives. Although professionalism may be in the eye of the beholder. A profession is defined as a trade or vocation, mainly one that involves some sort of higher education or special training. Professionalism is a stature that theRead MoreEthics and Professionalism in Nursing500 Words   |  2 PagesEthics and Professionalism in Nursing The combination of professionalism and ethics can be equated with an extraordinary nurse because they are core components in the nursing profession and crucial to patient trust, confidence and wellbeing. Having a degree in nursing is not what makes one a professional. Professionalism is defined as: The skill, good judgment, and polite behavior that is expected from a person who is trained to do a job well. It is further described as: the conduct, aims,Read MoreProfessionalism In Nursing Essay1405 Words   |  6 Pagesread, offering insights that were thought provoking and informative. 1-We started out this with a dialog on the idea of professionalism in nursing. We journeyed from how this profession got its start then transformed into the career that we are working in now to include the rationale for the program we are taking, RN to BSN. Some challenges were discussed as part of the nursing field such as stress and ideas were given on coping to avoid burnout and maintain patient care. It is fortunate to knowRead MoreProfessionalism in the Workplace of Nursing Essay698 Words   |  3 PagesIn a highly respected profession such as nursing, professionalism is an important element to staying employed and setting one’s self apart from the rest of the applicants when competing for a potential job. By definition professionalism are the qualities and traits that describe a professional. While knowledge is crucial in any profession, according to an article published by the University of Kansas (2012), â€Å"all medical professionals must strive to retain those hu manistic qualities integrity, respect

Pancho Villa Essay - 1445 Words

Pancho villa Doroteo Aranga learned to hate aristocratic Dons, who worked he and many other Mexicans like slaves, Doroteo Aranga also known as Pancho villa hated aristocratic because he made them work like animals all day long with little to eat. Even more so, he hated ignorance within the Mexican people that allowed such injustices. At the young age of fifteen, Aranga came home to find his mother trying to prevent the rape of his sister. Aranga shot the man and fled to the Sierra Madre for the next fifteen years, marking him as a fugitive for the first time. It was then that he changed his name from Doroteo Aranga to Francisco quot;Panchoquot; Villa, a man he greatly admired. Upon the outbreak of the Mexican Revolution of 1910-1911†¦show more content†¦As a result, this set the stage for a confrontation between the U.S. and Pancho Villa. Hence, the United States put an embargo on Villa, not allowing him to purchase guns, ammunition, equipment, etc., in American border towns. His transactions were, thus, made illegal, which automatically doubles his price. Considering his shortages, troops through harsh terrain to Aagua Prieta. Villa assumed it would be poorly protected and by capturing it, he would create a buffer zone with the U.S. to transport arms in his campaigning efforts. Too his surprise, Agua Prieta was heavily protected, because Wilson had allowed Carranza to transport 5000 Mexican troops to American soil, which had arrived before Villa. The trains of soldiers forced Villa’s tired horseback troops into retreat. The U.S. was delighted when Carranza declared Villa done for good. Consequently, Carranza invited old U.S. investors (fro m before the Revolution) to invest again. On March 9th 1916, Villa crossed the border with about 600 men and attacked Columbus, NM killing 17 American citizens and destroying part of the town. Because of the growing discrimination towards Latinos, the bodies of Mexicans were gathered and burned as a sanitary precaution against quot;Mexican diseases.quot; A punitive expedition, costing the U.S. about twenty-five million dollars, dispatched and about 150,000 troops to be mobilized in efforts to capture Pancho Villa, who was nowShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of The Movie Pancho Villa 1090 Words   |  5 PagesIsaac Cigarroa History 1302 Mr. McGregor Oct. 2, 2014 Pancho Villa It’s been more than a century since the revolution in Mexico because of the president. Many people in Mexico in the nineteen hundreds, were suffering of poverty and were starving, because of the lack of jobs in the cities. Porfidio Diaz was the president at the time, and there were many rebels against him. But through the revolution, there were many battles that ended the lives of thousands of Mexicans just for the land. But, forRead MoreFrancisco Pancho Villa As A Folk Hero1460 Words   |  6 PagesFrancisco Pancho Villa was a popular Mexican guerilla and revolutionary leader that won the hearts of many by fighting for the poor. He was part of the uprising of Francisco Madero against Porfirio Dà ­az in 1909, who was then the Mexican President. Villa later graduated to become the Divisià ³n del Norte cavalry’s leader and Chihuahua’s governor. Villas life was filled with rebellion and violence. Villa killed over 30 Americans in several attacks after conflicti ng with Venustiano Carranza who was hisRead MorePancho Villa and the Raid on Columbus, New Mexico3537 Words   |  15 Pageslightly garrisoned, Mexican revolutionary Francisco â€Å"Pancho† Villa ordered what remained of his army to attack the small farming town. His well-earned reputation had been seriously damaged by this point considering recent losses that devastated his army, having both the Mexican and American governments after him, and by crossing into the United States he unknowingly made it certain that an end to his leadership within Mexico was inevitable. Why did Villa cross the border to attack Columbus? PresidentRead MoreTo What Extent Did Pancho Villa s Relations With The U.s. Change Political Image?2365 Words   |  10 PagesThis investigation will explore the question: To what extent did Pancho Villa’s relations with the U.S. change his political image? I will be evaluating The Mexican Revolution by Adolfo Gilly as well as The United States and Pancho Villa: A Study in Unconventional Diplomacy by Clarence C. Clendenen. I selected these two sources to compare because the first source is written by Adolfo Gilly, who is a professor in Mexico which means his viewpoint is different compared to Clarence Clendenen’s, who isRead MoreThe Life and Legacy of Doroteo Arango Essay1136 Words   |  5 PagesMany people do not know the true story of Francisco â€Å"Pancho† Villa. Pancho Villa was actually born Doroteo Arango Arambula on June 5, 1878 in San Juan del Rio, Mexico. Doroteo’s parents were uneducate d, peasant sharecrop farmers. This fact is important because Doroteo had a high level of intelligence even though he did not have any formal education. After his father’s death, Doroteo took his father’s place as a sharecropper and helped support his mother and four sisters. There are many versionsRead MoreThe Mexican Revolution Of Mexico And The United States Essay1409 Words   |  6 Pagestime is General Francisco â€Å"Pancho† Villa. To understand Pancho Villa’s significant role during this uprising it is important to understand who Villa was prior to the revolution, and what acts lead to his rise to power. Francisco â€Å"Pancho† Villa (born Doroteo Arango on June 5th, 1878) was known as a bandit prior to his life as a Mexican General. Villa was born to sharecropper parents on a hacienda in San Juan Del Rio, Durango, Mexico. After the death of his father, Villa only in his teens became theRead MoreEssay on The Underdogs841 Words   |  4 Pagesof Pancho Villa, he seems to have the same ideals as the enemy. In addition to Demetrio Macias, we meet women like Camilla and War Paint who represent the different roles that women played during the Mexican Revolution. The character of Demetrio Macias proves to be quite ironic. One facet of his character reveals his determination to find Pancho Villas army, while the other side of his character parallels the extraordinary qualities Pancho Villa had as a hero. People viewed Pancho Villa asRead MoreEssay about Analysis of The Underdogs by Mariano Azuela822 Words   |  4 Pagesarmy of Pancho Villa, he seems to have the same ideals as the enemy. In addition to Demetrio Macias, we meet women like Camilla and War Paint who represent the different roles that women played during the Mexican Revolution. The character of Demetrio Macias proves to be quite ironic. One facet of his character reveals his determination to find Pancho Villa’s army, while the other side of his character parallels the extraordinary qualities Pancho Villa had as a hero. People viewed Pancho Villa as aRead MoreThe Mexican Revolution1259 Words   |  6 Pagesworkers, or peons, and its citizens. Revolutions are often started because a large group of individuals want to see a change. These beings decided to be the change that they wanted to see and risked many things, including their lives. Francisco â€Å"Pancho† Villa and Emiliano Zapata are the main revolutionaries remembered. These figures of the revolution took on the responsibility that came with the title. Their main goal was to regain the rights the people deserved. The peons believed that they deservedRead MoreMexico Post Colonial1566 Words   |  7 PagesThe history of Post colonial Mexico included many successful and influential leader s: Porfirio Diaz, Francisco Madero, Francisco (Pancho) Villa, and Emiliano Zapata. Disparities in classification of the revolution arise from the numerous factions and ideological assumptions advocated for the overthrow of Diaz’s rule, hence one can argue that it was a political, social, or economical revolution. A social revolution advocates a complete transformation of all characteristic aspects of society, encompassing

Explain How Each Sector of Industry free essay sample

Explain how each sector of industry is linked together within a supply chain? In todays world, supply chain management (SCM) is a key strategic factor for increasing organizational effectiveness and for better realization of organizational goals such as enhanced competitiveness, better customer care and increased profitability. Today, most of the enterprises of a supply chain operate independently. For example, marketing, distribution, production planning, manufacturing, and the purchasing organizations have their own objectives and these objectives are often conflicting. This way of functioning prevents the enterprises from providing the right products to the right customers at the right time. All these organizations are individually efficient enterprises, but they lack coordination to produce required end results. A supply chain can be described as a network of retailers, distributors, transporters, storage facilities, and suppliers that participate in the production, delivery, and sale of a product to the consumer. The supply chain is typically made up of multiple companies who coordinate activities to set themselves apart from the competition. We will write a custom essay sample on Explain How Each Sector of Industry or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Supply chains are all about linkages. A supply chain is only as strong as its weakest link. Whenever a chain breaks, it usually does at the weakest link. In a supply chain there are many interfaces (links), and problems develop at these interfaces. The best way to overcome these problems is to, manage the supply chain efficiently. This helps the organizations to act and not react to the unexpected changes in the market situations. In the case of IKEA, the supply chain involves a flow of production and processes through each of the three industrial sectors: primary, secondary and tertiary. Specifically, the various stages of the process are raw materials in the primary stage, manufacturing in the secondary stage, distribution and retailing services in the tertiary stage. In the primary stage, IKEA works closely with its primary sector suppliers to ensure that it is receiving sustainable and environmentally friendly raw materials. IKEA designs its own products and throughout this process makes sure that the impact on the environment is minimised. The firm uses a tool called the â€Å"e-wheel† to measure the environmental impact of products. This looks at resources, production, use and recycling for each product. Around half of IKEA? s products are made of wood. This is a good source of material as it is recyclable and renewable. Other production processes which help support sustainability include tables made from recycled plastic, rugs made from off-cuts, products made to stack for more efficient transportation. IKEA works with suppliers to reduce waste or use waste products in further manufacture. To help it has a Code of Conduct called the IKEA Way (IWAY). In the secondary stage, IKEA creates its products from raw materials. During this stage, IKEA also created added value for its products with the utilization of the smallest amount of resources. The IWAY Code also helps manufacturers by making sure that they apply sustainable principles. It also insists that they follow laws, health and safety requirements and do not employ child labour. It states that materials from non-sustainable sources should not be used. The Code raises standards for all concerned. IKEA also works with other organisations to support the Code. These include children’s charity UNICEF and the World Wildlife Fund. In the tertiary stage, IKEA does not use raw materials nor create its products. IKEA’s retail stores add value to manufactured goods by providing a form of shopping different to the usual high-street experience. IKEA has more than 260 shops in 36 countries set up to provide a retail experience that meets consumer needs. Stores are large and customers can pick their own purchases. Further services are provided through the IKEA catalogue and home delivery. IKEA also has set up initiatives to support sustainability within the company by aiming to recycle up to 90% of its waste, removing carrier bags from its stores, subsidising public transport and encouraging cycling (with a new bike given to each employee), giving low-energy light bulbs for employees, using only hybrid vehicles as company cars. Within a supply chain, every sector must be well connected. It means that the upstream and the downstream can not be separated in order to meet the market demand in any situation. The three sectors mentioned earlier within IKEA supply chain are well connected. IKEA uses excellent supply chain concepts, reducing and eliminating wastes at every stage and hence can offer good value to customers. The IKEA’s supply chain is a complete process that can match together the suppliers, the manufacturer and the customers. With the support of the primary sector, IKEA can sustainably produce high quality products and sufficient quantities to meet the market demand at the lowest cost. The tertiary sector helps IKEA go further to create added value for customers, bringing about a close and sustainable relationship with the customers. IKEA’s supply chain strategy to connect the three sectors closely proves that it aims to act out and become a global giant in the industry.

The whole stage for most of the play Essay Example For Students

The whole stage for most of the play Essay During the 7thJanuary, I tried to concentrate on my space and be aware of how much of the stage I was using. That was quite easy as I had to use nearly the whole stage for most of the play! I was the character that had to create the atmosphere; it was quite hard as I wasnt sure what to do. I found it quite easy in the end because I got use to it and learnt I can change the different atmospheres in a room with only one word, or even only one action. I showed this just after Chris had opened the play with his shouting and talking fast, as I slowly appeared talking slowly and faint but also shivering with my eyes darting around the room as if looking at something, saying can.. youseethem, they are watching you! With my hands also round my throat!! We will write a custom essay on The whole stage for most of the play specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Finally on the 14th when we were concentrating on body language, and what movements best explain my mood and action. I found that not everything had to be said to get to the audience what I want them to know. For example I found it easier to use my body language to talk to the audience rather than speaking! This is shown when I am walking round trying to apologise to the audience for Chris shouting at them, and I just look worried and up set. By putting my hand up, and trying to make eye contact with them. During the rehearsals there were a lot of important decisions made these included what the plot was going to be! This was one of the most important decisions made because without it we would have been performing a completely different play which would have meant different marks. I came up with the original idea for the play and the group expanded it from there. This was the most important idea followed closely by the staging, I decided that the best option for our play would be theatre of the round; this would enable us to get the aspects of the play across to the audience and also involve the audience more. Aside from this I decided on what character I wanted to be and how this affected the play. I believe most of my ideas were I believe the drama we created was close to one of our original ideas. Although not matching! I feel our performance was a success. This is because it went well and to plan, even though we got lower marks than we would have liked on our original performance. We have improved those marks easily this was because it was simple mistakes we made, that were easily adjustable. For example all three of our tone and pitch of our voices stayed the same through out the performance. This was changed easily with people slowing down how they speak and varying the tone of voice as well. Aside from that one of our achievements I enjoyed about the play was the staging.  This is because i decided to use theatre of the round! As this allows us more space to perform in. I also liked theatre of the round because it was difficult but I believe it made our play into a better performance. As we were theatre in the round, we thought it would be easier to use simple lighting techniques; this is because it fitted around our play, and hopefully made it better. I decided to include one black out and a bright light. The bright light was used to show the dismissal followed by the fading of the emotions. This helped to create a tense mood with the audience wandering what is going to happen next. The black out was used at the very end just to show the play had completely finished. We didnt really use costumes because I thought you dont know what emotions look like, as they are always there but you can never see them! With this in mind we decided to use black out fits because you can see use but not clearly!

How To Create A Website Using WordPress - EssaySupply.com

How To Create A Website Using WordPress How to Create a Website Using WordPress Not very long ago, the process of creating a website was quite complex. If you wanted a nice looking website where visitors would actually enjoy spending time, you had to master HTML, JavaScript, or other languages in order to build and launch a decent site. Your other option was to use an online website template. Unfortunately, the web sites generated using those were clunky and hard to navigate. Now, there is another option. WordPress is a utility that allows people to create professional looking blogs and websites without having to master any technical skills. In fact, creating a WordPress website is quite simple. If you are willing to learn a few tips and techniques, you could potentially have your own website up and running in just a few hours. First Things First: Get Signed Up To start, go to the WordPress website and get signed up. You’ll be able to set up a user account and choose password. You’ll also be able to choose the name of your website. WordPress gives you two options. The first is free, and will look like this: www.yourwebsitename.wordpress.com. The other costs a nominal amount of money and looks like this: www.yourwebsitename.com. There are other more costly options if you want to set your website up as an e-commerce store. Now, Take a Look Around WordPress Once your profile has been created and you have selected your website name and title, take a look around your dashboard. This is where you will do all of the work required to keep your website   up to date and running smoothly. If you cannot figure everything out, don’t worry. WordPress has plenty of tutorials.   You can also submit questions to a customer service agent, or use their forums to find answers. Picking Your Theme Your theme is the thing that will give your website personality. If you are launching a personal or business website and you care about branding, it is very important to choose a theme that works for you. Remember though, you can customize themes by adding your own images and making other changes.   These include custom images, fonts, adding your own titles and headers, and colors. Start Writing With WordPress, you either write posts or you write pages. A post is like a blog post. When you publish a new post, that is what your visitors see, and your previous posts are pushed down the page. When you publish a page, that is appears in the same way a new page appears on a website. Remember that your website can have both posts and pages. For example, you may have a contact page, a home page, and a products page, but you may also have a blog page where you publish new posts. You can set up menus and navigation links to help your visitors find their way around your website. Check Out Some PlugIns PlugIns are nifty little utilities that you can use to make your WordPress website even better. PlugIns can be used to make your site load faster for visitors, help you manage user comments, publish your logo onto all of your pages, stream content from news feeds, and a variety of other helpful things. There are even plugins that will verify all of the links on your WordPress site so that you can fix any dead links and make sure the content that you link is still appropriate. If you can set up a WordPress website, you can use it for many things. You could launch that small business, or you could simply set up a website to launch your personal brand or discuss your interests. As always, if you need help with web content (remember you can count on us for more than helping you buy college essays online), our writers will be happy to assist.

QUIZ What grade you should teach based on your personality

QUIZ What grade you should teach based on your personality Becoming a teacher is such a rewarding fulfilling career. Teachers have the ability to make learning fun with creative spins on new concepts, constantly learning, and being able to still enjoy having summers off. As a teacher, you inspire and impact the lives of many children. Thinking about becoming a teacher but not quite sure what grade you should teach? This quiz is perfect to help you decide what grade you should teach based on your personality.Source [ Playbuzz ]

Critically evaluate the operational activity of Singapore Airlines Essay

Critically evaluate the operational activity of Singapore Airlines - Essay Example The intention of this study is Singapore Airlines as one of the best rated airline companies operating in the globe. The highly turbulent and capital intensive industry segment generates a considerable need for organizations like Singapore airlines to ensure better operational abilities. Considering the fact that the domestic market of the nation is very small hence the airline needs to use the international route to stay in the business and maintain profitability and sustainability. Moreover the competitive price wars being introduced into the market by the advent of the low cost carriers also plays a major threat to the profitability and sustainability of companies like Singapore Airlines. Hence it is imperative for Singapore Airlines to ensure operational excellence that can help the company stay afloat in the highly turbulent and competitive business market. Singapore airlines have crafted a well structured operational strategy to maintain sustainability and retain the competitiv e edge. In this regard the company has procured new and advanced aircrafts like Boeing 777 and 747 to save on costs and generate efficiency. It is the first company to have used the world’s largest carrier for long haul flights generating greater revenue per unit spent on operations. The airline also had a good fuel hedging strategy under which the airline was the first among the major airline companies having international operations to be able to fully offset the entire quantum of price element by virtue of hedging strategies. This helped the company to save on costs in the highly volatile oil market that is characterised by heavy fluctuations and skyrocketing prices (Morrell & Swan, 2006, p.14). Singapore airlines have also used the hub and spoke model to enhance its reach to new areas. The airline has made Singapore the hub and draws passengers from neighbouring nations to its hub in smaller aircrafts. From its hub the company uses larger aircrafts like Boeing 747 and Air bus A380 to fly to far off destinations. In this way the company tries to use the international market to generate revenues. This assumes importance considering the fact that Singapore is a very small nation with a very small market and hence in order to maintain profitability and sustainability the company needs to tap the international audience. Figure 1: Operational Statistics-Singapore Airlines (Source: Singapore Airlines, 2010, p. 6) The figure shown above illustrates the operational aspects of the airline company. The figure clearly states that the carrier has generated a one percent change in the number of passengers carried with the figure at actual being 16647 (in thousands). The passenger load factor that is a measure of an airline’s usage of its capacity has also shown a slight improvement of 0.1 percentage point to 78.5 percent. However the figure is considerably impressive considering the dip in the number of passengers owing to recessionary activities in the eco nomy and the advent of low cost carriers in the market. The figure for available seat kilometres has also shown an increase by about 2.3 percent. This implies that the carrier has augmented its efficiency in using its available passenger seats. The figure for revenue passenger kilometres also shows a significant increase of 2.3 percent to 84801.3 million kilometres in the year 2010-11. This implies that Singapore Airlines has generated greater efficiency in generating revenues by flying passengers over greater distances. The measure of passenger yield has also risen by about 14.4 percent to reach figures of 11.9 cents per kilometre. This implies that the company generated greater fare as revenue flowing per mile from the passengers across various routes. The increase in the value over its previous year shows that the company

Training and Development Relate to Human Resource Essay

Training and Development Relate to Human Resource - Essay Example Formal mentoring can also be subject to monitoring by Human Resource managers and others within an organization to make sure objectives are met. Informal mentoring is more of a natural relationship that develops between two individuals with mutual respect, who become involved in the relationship on a purely voluntary basis. Such mentoring is more common and usually more flexible in nature. There is a lack of outside influence and structure, with participants defining the skills and behaviors taught, within their own time frame. There has been much information gathered from mentored involved in such relationships, though not as much from mentors. Manda Rosser (2005) identifies characteristics of mentoring relationships in her study of CEOs a mentors who have been previously mentored. First, most of them recognize the value of such relationships, as many described such relationships as helpful to their current positions and professional skills. Second, most identify mentoring relations hips as long-lasting, often over periods of several decades. Even when the mentoring has negative results, those studied admit that the mentoring relationships Mentoring and Apprenticeship Training HRM420 Term Paper 2 are valuable learning tools. One executive talks about his own mentoring relationship as one in which he was hurt and taken advantage of. Because of the experience, he mentors with an attitude of fairness and giving. Another executive describes mentoring as â€Å"perhaps even one of the most important things that can occur in developing others. Mentoring is giving of yourself. There is no expectation of return†(Rosser, 2005, p.547).

Heuristics Lead to Predictable Biases and Inconsistencies Essay Example for Free

Heuristics Lead to Predictable Biases and Inconsistencies Essay The human brain is complex, most especially as a specimen for study regarding decision-making and problem solving. The brain uses very precise methods of compression in order to distinguish the most important features of a certain sensory data. Because of human error, these methods are not perfect. Humans obtain large numbers of sensory data a day, even terabytes worth to be more precise. Most of what a person sees within the day gets erased from his memory, yet tiny pieces of data remain. These are converted into symbolic format, which would connect to the person’s experiences once he is in contact with it. When the sensory data gets abstracted it then becomes symbolical to the person and taken from long-term memory, certain biasing effects arise. â€Å"Biases also operate when the symbols are invoked and manipulated for cognitive operations. † The results of these are our belief systems, representation and anchoring. Anchoring refers to the process where people form beliefs around an anchor and every incoming data should relate towards that anchor even though significantly irrelevant. Representation â€Å"occurs when people expect their outputs to resemble the generating process.† Yet representation doesn’t prove efficient and always true, and this is due mainly because of human bias. Representation and anchoring are examples of heuristics. They are more commonly described as â€Å"rules of thumb† which humans use in reasoning in cognitively economical ways. These are inscribed in the human brain, and it is the same for all, as we all have a pair of hands and a pair of eyes. Heuristics started in the late 1960s and early 1970s and devised by Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman where they focused their studies on human judgment. Heuristics replaced rational judgment and the algorithmic method where they theorized that judgment in uncertainty rests on a limited number of heuristics rather than other more complicated methods. Heuristics became accepted and spread upon almost all forms of knowledge – economics, medicine, law, psychology and political science. This study was revolutionary in its time because â€Å"it simultaneously questioned the descriptive adequacy of ideal models of judgment and offered a cognitive alternative that explained human error without invoking motivated irrationality. † Kahneman and Tversky’s study revolved around the assumption of â€Å"bounded rationality†. In their study, they have also showed that humans indeed are very limited in processing and are probable to erroneous judgment, they attest to the earlier models of judgment where not fit to humans since they are much simpler than what is really happens in human decision making. After wide acceptance and a moving away from the rational decision-making patterns devised in the past, where humans are thought to always choose the best decision by means of probability, Heuristics is still seen to have inconsistencies and laden with biases. The whole concept of Heuristics gives a structured way of problem solving, taking into consideration human brain function and capacity which inevitably makes the process easier. As compared to the old model of thinking where humans are always seen to know probability and choose the best way based on probability computation, Heuristics give a deeper understanding of the human condition. Some failures of heuristics enter when it is presented with data that is not part of its â€Å"domain of expertise† or what is already previously calculated. Biases are a key error in using heuristics for problem solving. A cognitive bias is defined as â€Å"any of a wide range of observer effects identified in cognitive science and social psychology including very basic statistical, social attribution, and memory errors that are common to all human beings. † Biases that are in direct relation to decision making and problem solving affect scientific methods technically designed to eliminate these exact chances of bias. Biases in Heuristics are difficult to notice for three reasons. First, the human thinking process that is used to judge and assess in problem solving is in itself full of biases. Second, biases are common and widespread that it is difficult to notice and third, the decisions that are made through the use of Heuristics feel good therefore it satisfies the person, regardless if it right or wrong. According to a University of Pennsylvania law school research paper, principal findings in behavioral economics and cognitive psychology through the years have shown in studies that humans â€Å"deviate from ideal precepts of rationality in many settings, showcasing inconsistent judgment in the face of framing and other formal manipulations of the presentation of problems.† In their research paper entitled, â€Å"Heuristics and Biases in Thinking About Tax†, they have suggested that citizens especially in the United States suffer from a wide range of biases in the understanding of the basic features of the tax-law design and reform, like the perceptual biases more studied in the domain of the private markets, like the evaluation of â€Å"risky choice† and consumer finances. The main goal of the paper was to show that in evaluating the tax systems present in the country, citizens are vulnerable and exhibit a wide range of Heuristics and biases, which lead to inconsistent judgment and evaluation. Prevalence of these biases show that there is indeed room for â€Å"skillful† politicians and facile political systems to â€Å"manipulate public opinion, and that tax system design will reflect a certain volatility on account of the possibility of eliciting preference reversals through purely formal rhetorical means. † Due to the inconsistencies and biases of Heuristics, decision theorists have studied this phenomenon more closely. It turned into a respected field, founded by of Kahneman and Tversky, commonly known as â€Å"Heuristics and biases.† Heuristics may work well in problem solving, but can also turn to harmful biases. A few examples of heuristics and biases include Framing, which means viewing a need in the real world as a â€Å"problem† you can work on solving and the counterpart bias is mistaking your view of the problem for the real need. Status quo, a heuristic that implies â€Å"Business as Usual† or â€Å"If it ain’t broke don’t fix it† may incur bias against anything new. Cognitive overconfidence is the same as decisiveness and refusal to be haunted by doubt which may lead to the bias of self-delusion. The Heuristic Prudent Estimation means â€Å"conservative estimates† which may lead to missed opportunities which are especially dangerous in group problem solving. Most likely scenario has the Heuristic explanation of avoiding wasting time on possibilities that probably won’t happen, but the bias is rare events can be the most important. Guessing at patterns implies quickly spotting the trend or the big picture, with a corresponding bias of â€Å"Outguessing randomness† and seeing patterns that doesn’t exist. The last example Recall ability or Availability which implies, if an idea doesn’t fit in with the obvious data, it’s surely suspect. The corresponding bias for this is, non-obvious things can be most important or even most common. These examples of Heuristics are common in everyday life, and these rules of thumb do help in assessing situations such as deals in business, economics, or day to day domestic problems. It is common knowledge that these Heuristics can fail predictably, which are also known as â€Å"hidden traps† when a person succumbs to the counterpart bias. It is already a given that Heuristics bring about inconsistencies and biases, but there are some methods of control. For example, for the Heuristic Framing, advice is to not automatically accept initial framing, strive for objective neutral framing, and challenge other people’s framings. These are remedies to biased formed Heuristics, which will generally help in problem solving, whichever stage of the problem the person is at.

Organizational Development and Leadership Program Essay -- theory of ch

The journey of Gestalt consulting proved to be very insightful and enlightening. I initially worried that I would not be able to apply the Gestalt style of learning to my professional repertoire within organizational development (OD). However, the outcome was the exact opposite and Gestalt has truly been a useful OD tool acquired. What astounded me most was the chemistry and relevance to the skill that I was motivated to strengthen the most which is use of self. Concepts such as the paradoxical theory of change, cycle of experience, developing themes and polarities, and the unit of work all incorporate the use of self as a sufficient way of paying attention to and selectively sharing observations about what is happening in another person, a group, and an organization. Additionally these concepts were used to illuminate the path through resistance. According to Carlson and Sklarew (1995), â€Å"work is grounded in a whole system and multiple levels of system perspective, paradoxical theory of change, and an appreciation for the power of phenomenological experience.† (p. 3). During the class sessions we were introduced to the levels of system perspective. These include: intrapersonal, interpersonal, dyad or triad, and group level. These levels are defined by their boundaries. For example, the boundary in an interpersonal system is an individual exchanging with another individual and it is essential to note the exchange between the two. In my first case study I was able to illustrate the level of the system I observed which was an interpersonal system between me and my colleague, Angelo Martez. A boundary existed between he and I and communication was proven to be essential to make the exchange. Carlson and Sklarew (1995) also state that... ...tion itself. The most significant observation of gestalt consulting to me is that the process allows and requires both sides of the brain to be used. Observations can be intellectually made and interpreted, however those observations can be furthermore illustrated creatively to provide a visualize representation. Perhaps there can be a polarity framed in reference to my learning journey through gestalt: â€Å"I observe that through my learning I was able to combine intellect with creativity just as two irrelevant colors can combine to introduce a beautiful new color. Works Cited Nevis, E. C. (1987). Organizational Consulting: A Gestalt Approach. New York, NY: Gardner Press Sklarew, N. & Carlson. (1995). ODL 530G: Gestalt Consulting Skills. [Class handout]. Organizational Development and Leadership Program, Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine. Georgia, USA.

Model and Incidence Reduction Formula

Today, we have many youth that have decided to come out of the closet, and have been shunned by their families and peers. Many have turned to alcohol and drugs to cope with their feelings of rejection. On the other hand, many of our youth indulge in risky sexual behaviors that put them at a great risk for sexuality transmitted diseases and even suicide ideation. Community Needs The proposed prevention program will address discrimination projected at youth's who identify with being gay or lesbian in their communities.When discrimination occurs in the community, it produces stress, physical and psychological issues. Lewis, Delegated, Clarke, & Kiang (2006) article addressed how discrimination of on?s sexual identity is categorization toward their social status. Discrimination of gay or lesbian youth can also produce substance use problems, suicidal acts, violent factorization along with risky sexual behaviors that put them at risk for HIVE infection, and significant rates of school dro pout (Kernighan, Sheathes, & Abacus, 2014).In communities, there are five factors that prohibit resilience within the lesbian or gay youth. Russell, Bona, Macaroon, & Smith (201 1) stated that the Sebastian or gay youth often experience homophobia, divisions' within their own communities; inability to make sense of danger; family failure of support for sexual identity; and their internalizing of negative information about lesbian or gay youth intentions on society as a whole. Many youth are therefore left feeling alone and unaccepted by their communities in which they live in.Desired Results Outputs: The overall achievement for participating in the program â€Å"Yes I Can† will be the following components. 1 . Parental/caretaker acceptance Of youth's sexual orientation. 2. Stability of emotional, physical and psychological health. . Cessation of risky sexual and addictive behaviors. 4. Parental/caretaker active participation in therapy. 5. Production of positive relationships in families, peers, and school. 6. Ability to relinquish prior offenses that caused tremendous psychological and emotional pain, 7. Ability to live a life free from shame and guilt.Impacts The expected goals of the program ‘Yes Can† will seek to foster self- acceptance of the youth's sexual identity, promote positive self-image; emotional and psychological stability; acknowledgement of guilt producing behaviors that affect cognitive abilities while wanting to achieve positive hanged. Influential Factors The program will utilize three modalities that have been shown to provide significant reduction capabilities for the lesbian or gay youth. Cognitive behavioral therapy postulates cessation of negative behavior and substance usage.The triangular theory of love will explain the concept of what love is, while forgiveness therapy will help the youth to understand how forgiveness can benefit them emotionally, spiritually, and psychologically once they make the conscious choic e to forgive individuals who have wronged them. Parents and caretakers can empower their children to be who they are by encouraging them attend school regardless of what others say or do as long as they are not harmed. Strategies The following strategies will be utilized in the prevention program â€Å"Yes I Can†. 1.Community leaders and organizations to provide stringent policies for anti-gay harassment and violence in the schools. 2. Encouragement from parent/caretaker, community leaders and organizations. 3. Encouragement to stay in school. 4. Therapist/counselor understands how biases can damage the therapeutic relationship. 5. Utilization of competent providers in the assessment and counseling sectors. 6. Cultural competence. . Ethical guidelines adherence. 8. Journaling by participant's of their needs and Concerns. 9. Assess the prospect of suicide ideation through the Beck Scale. 10. Random drug screenings. 11.Explain the informed consent. 12. Obtain an active measurem ent of confidence by using the self-efficacy scale. Assumptions The prevention program goals will be to empower the youths toward self- acceptance, positive self-worth, freedom from their negative past experiences; production of positive coping mechanisms; understanding of the risk of substance abuse on their health. The program will utilize donated reverie for assessments and counseling services. Referrals will be made to area hospitals with the recommendation for evaluation of the participant in a crisis stabilization unit for suicide ideation.Incidence Reduction Formula Incidence Reduction= Decrease: Maladaptive coping, stress reduction, depression, risky sexual of anger from prior offenses, shame Guilt. Behaviors, alleviation Increase: Acceptance of sexual identity, parental/caretaker Communication, self-esteem, self-worth. Logic Model Resources Activities Outputs Short & Long Terms Outcomes Staff Trained in forgiveness therapy. Provide understanding of love for self. Trained st aff in cognitive behavioral therapy. Participant's secured from area schools, churches, & parental referrals.Community agency referrals. Parental/caretaker participation Group therapy sessions. Workbooks on discriminatory practices. Journals to write own thoughts & feelings to be addressed in therapy Drug testing Parental/caretaker involvement. Parental/caretaker acceptance of youth's sexual orientation. Developed positive self-esteem. Substance abuse alleviated. Positive support from selected peers/family Of choice. Alleviate depression & suicidal ideation. Positive cognitive and decision making skills. Positive attitude toward school and peers.Positive parental/caretaker relationships sustained. Develop and utilize voice against discrimination. Positive identity. Ability to function daily without drugs and alcohol. Healthy attitude toward life. Ability to develop and maintain healthy relationships. Ability to encourage others of the lesbian and gay community. Formative The program will use the concept of targeted mediator validation which recommends researchers to select social, psychological, and demographic variables that would be used in mediating and moderating such variables for he intervention.There will be three modalities used to advance and achieve the allocated intervention procedures. Attention will be focused on logged parental/caretaker and community participations. Relationship qualities will be viewed to assess whether they are conducive for the participant's. Conformity will be completed between the influences on the participants willingness to change negative behaviors that have caused them harm. Us m native The program â€Å"Yes I Can† was designed to empower the lesbian and gay youth in communities to change damaging behaviors that have stagnated heir joy in life from discrimination.

How Time Flies

Non-governmental organization From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search â€Å"NGO† redirects here. For other uses, see NGO (disambiguation). | This article may need to be rewritten entirely to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards. You can help. The discussion page may contain suggestions. (January 2012) | A non-governmental organization (NGO) is a legally constituted organization created by natural or legal persons that operates independently from any form of government.The term originated from the United Nations (UN), and is normally used to refer to organizations that are not a part of the government and are not conventional for-profit business. In the cases in which NGOs are funded totally or partially by governments, the NGO maintains its non-governmental status by excluding government representatives from membership in the organization. The term is usually applied only to organizations that pursue wider social aims that have political aspects, but are not openly political organizations such as political parties. The number of NGOs operating in the United States is estimated at 40,000. 1] International numbers are even higher: Russia has 277,000 NGOs;[2] India is estimated to have around 3. 3 million NGOs in year 2009, which is just over one NGO per 400 Indians, and many times the number of primary schools and primary health centres in India. [3][4] Contents * 1 Definition * 2 Types * 2. 1 Development, Environment and Human Rights NGOs * 2. 2 Track II Diplomacy * 3 Activities * 3. 1 Operational * 3. 2 Campaigning * 3. 3 Both * 3. 4 Public relations * 3. 5 Project management * 4 Corporate structure * 4. 1 Staffing * 4. Funding * 4. 3 Overhead costs * 4. 4 Monitoring and control * 5 History * 6 Legal status * 7 Critiques * 7. 1 Challenges to legitimacy * 8 See also * 9 References * 10 Further reading * 11 External links| Definition NGOs are difficult to define and classify, and the term ‘NGO' is not used consistently. As a result, there are many different classifications in use. The most common use a framework that includes orientation and level of operation. An NGO's orientation refers to the type of activities it takes on. These activities might include human rights, environmental, or evelopment work. An NGO's level of operation indicates the scale at which an organization works, such as local, international or national. â€Å"Confronting the Classification Problem: Toward a Taxonomy of NGOs† One of the earliest mentions of the acronym â€Å"NGO† was in 1945, when the UN was created. The UN, which is an inter-governmental organization, made it possible for certain approved specialized international non-state agencies – or non-governmental organisations – to be awarded observer status at its assemblies and some of its meetings. Later the term became used more widely.Today, according to the UN, any kind of private organization that is independent from government contr ol can be termed an â€Å"NGO†, provided it is not-profit, non-criminal and not simply an opposition political party. Professor Peter Willetts, from the University of London, argues the definition of NGOs can be interpreted differently by various organizations and depending on a situation’s context. He defines an NGO as â€Å"†an independent voluntary association of people acting together on a continuous basis for some common purpose other than achieving government office, making money or illegal activities. [5] In this view, two main types of NGOs are recognized according to the activities they pursue: operational NGOs that deliver services and campaigning NGOs. Although Willetts proposes the operational and campaigning NGOs as a tool to differentiate the main activities of these organizations, he also explains that a single NGO may often be engaged in both activities. Many NGOs also see them as mutually reinforcing. Professor Akira Iriye defines NGO as â€Å" a voluntary nonstate, nonprofit, nonreligious, and nonmilitary association. â€Å"[6] Types Some find it helpful to classify NGOs by orientation and/ Professional association * Empowering orientation; NGO type by level of co-operation * Community-based organization * City-wide organization * National NGO * International NGO Apart from â€Å"NGO†, there are many alternative or overlapping terms in use, including: third sector organization (TSO), non-profit organization (NPO), voluntary organization (VO), civil society organization (CSO), grassroots organization (GO), social movement organization (SMO), private voluntary organization (PVO), self-help organization (SHO) and non-state actors (NSAs).Non-governmental organizations are a heterogeneous group. As a result, a long (and sometimes confusing or comical) list of additional acronyms has developed, including: * BINGO, short for ‘business-friendly international NGO' or ‘big international NGO' * TANGO, ‘tech nical assistance NGO' * TSO, ‘third sector organization' * GONGO, ‘government-operated NGOs' (set up by governments to look like NGOs in order to qualify for outside aid or promote the interests of government) * DONGO: Donor Organized NGO INGO stands for international NGO; Oxfam, INSPAD,[7] Institute of Peace and Development â€Å"A European Think Tank For Peace Initiatives†; * QUANGOs are quasi-autonomous non-governmental organizations, such as the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). (The ISO is actually not purely an NGO, since its membership is by nation, and each nation is represented by what the ISO Council determines to be the ‘most broadly representative' standardization body of a nation.That body might itself be a nongovernmental organization; for example, the United States is represented in ISO by the American National Standards Institute, which is independent of the federal government. However, other countries can be represented b y national governmental agencies; this is the trend in Europe. ) * National NGO: A non-governmental organization that exists only in one country. This term is rare due to the globalization of non-governmental organizations, which causes an NGO to exist in more than one country. [5] * CSO, short for civil society organization ENGO: short for environmental NGO, such as Greenpeace and WWF * NNGO, short for ‘Northern nongovernmental organization' * SNGO, short for ‘Southern nongovernmental organization' * SCO, also known as ‘social change organizations' * TNGO, transnational NGO; The term emerged during the 1970s due to the increase of environmental and economic issues in the global community. TNGO includes non-governmental organizations that are not confined to only one country, but exist in two or more countries. * GSO: Grassroots Support Organization * MANGO: short for market advocacy NGO NGDO: non-governmental development organization USAID refers to NGOs as privat e voluntary organizations. However, many scholars have argued that this definition is highly problematic as many NGOs are in fact state and corporate funded and managed projects with professional staff. [citation needed] NGOs exist for a variety of reasons, usually to further the political or social goals of their members or funders. Examples include improving the state of the natural environment, encouraging the observance of human rights, improving the welfare of the disadvantaged, or representing a corporate agenda.However, there are a huge number of such organizations and their goals cover a broad range of political and philosophical positions. This can also easily be applied to private schools and athletic organizations. Development, Environment and Human Rights NGOs NGOs are organizations that work in many different fields, but the term is generally associated with those seeking social transformation and improvements in quality of life. Development NGOs is the most highly visi ble sector, and includes both international and local organizations, as well as those working in humanitarian emergency sector.Many are associated with international aid and voluntary donation, but there are also NGOs that choose not to take funds from donors and try to generate funding in other ways, such as selling handicrafts or charging for services. Environmental NGOs are another sub-sector, and sometimes overlap with development NGOs. An example is Greenpeace. (see: List of Environmental NGOs). Just like other NGOs networks, transnational environmental networks might acquire a variety of benefits in sharing information with other organizations, campaigning towards an issue, and exchanging contact information.Since Transnational environmental NGOs advocate for different issues like public goods, such as pollution in the air, deforestation of areas and water issues, it is more difficult for them to give their campaigns a human face than NGOs campaigning directly for human rights issues. Some of the earliest forms of transnational environmental NGOs started to appear after the Second World War with the creation of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN).After the UN was formed in 1945, more environmental NGO started to emerge in order to address more specific environmental issues. In 1946, the UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) was created with the purpose of advocating and representing scientific issues and collaboration among environmental NGOs. In 1969, the Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE) was funded to increase and improve collaboration among environmentalists. This collaboration was later reinforced and stimulated with the creation of UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere Program in 1971.In 1972, the UN Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm, tried to address the issues on Sweden’s plead for international intervention on trans-boundary pollution from other European industrialized nations. Transnational environmental NGOs have taken on diverse issues around the globe, but one of the best-known cases involving the work of environmental NGO’s can be traced back to Brazil during the 1980s. The United States got involved with deforestation concerns due to the allegations of environmentalists dictating deforestation to be a global concern, and after 1977 the U.S. Foreign Assistance Act added an Environmental and Natural Resources section. Human rights NGOs may also overlap with those in development, but are another distinct category. Amnesty International is perhaps one of the best-known. During the early 1980s the Brazilian government created the Polonoreste developing program, which the World Bank agreed to finance. The Polonoreste program aimed to urbanized areas of the Amazon, which were already occupied by local indigenous groups.Rapid deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon called the attention and intervention of UNE SCO, who utilized its Program on Man and the Biosphere to advocate against the Polonoreste program, on the grounds of violating the rights of the indigenous groups living in the Amazon. In the case of deforestation of the Brazilian Amazon, the environment NGOs were able to put pressure on the World Bank to cancel the loans for the Polonoreste program. Due to the leverage that the U. S. has over the bank, in 1985 the World Bank suspended the financial aid to the Polonoreste Program.The work of environmental NGOs in the Brazilian case was successful because there was a point of leverage that made the targeted actor vulnerable to international pressure. [8] Even though NGOs might have common goals relating to development or environment issues, interests and perspectives are diverse. A distinction can be made between the interests and goals among those NGOs located in industrialized countries—often referred to as the states of the North—and NGOs from nations located in dev eloping countries—referred to as states of the South.There is sometimes tension between them. Southern states blame the developed nations for over-consumption and pollution resulting from industrialization, and for sustaining inequalities in the international economic system There is also a distinction among groups that take on particular and specific socio-economic issues. The Women’s Environment and Development Organization was created in 1990 with the purpose to advocate for gender inclusion in work related to the Earth Summit.Other groups might focus on issues that include racial minorities and individuals from lower income backgrounds. [9] Track II Diplomacy Main article: Track II diplomacy Track II dialogue, or Track II diplomacy, is a transnational coordination that involves non-official members of the government including epistemic communities as well as former policy-makers or analysts. Track II diplomacy aims to get policymakers and policy analysts to come to a common solution through discussions by unofficial figures of the government.Unlike the Track I diplomacy where government officials, diplomats and elected leaders gather to talk about certain issues, Track II diplomacy consists of experts, scientists, professors and other figures that are not involved in government affairs. The members of Track II diplomacy usually have more freedom to exchange ideas and come up with compromise on their own. Activities There are also numerous classifications of NGOs. The typology the World Bank uses divides them into Operational and Advocacy:[10] NGOs vary in their methods.Some act primarily as lobbyists, while others primarily conduct programs and activities. For instance, an NGO such as Oxfam, concerned with poverty alleviation, might provide needy people with the equipment and skills to find food and clean drinking water, whereas an NGO like the FFDA helps through investigation and documentation of human rights violations and provides legal as sistance to victims of human rights abuses. Others, such as Afghanistan Information Management Services, provide specialized technical products and services to support development activities implemented on the ground by other organizations.NGOs were intended to fill a gap in government services, but in countries like India, NGOs are gaining a powerful stronghold in decision making. In the interest of sustainability, most donors require that NGOs demonstrate a relationship with governments. State Governments themselves are vulnerable because they lack strategic planning and vision. They are therefore sometimes tightly bound by a nexus of NGOs, political bodies, commercial organizations and major donors/funders, making decisions that have short term outputs but no long term affect.NGOs in India are under regulated, political, and recipients of large government and international donor funds. NGOs often take up responsibilities outside their skill ambit. Governments have no access to th e number of projects or amount of funding received by these NGOs. There is a pressing need to regulate this group while not curtailing their unique role as a supplement to government services. Operational Operational NGOs seek to â€Å"achieve small scale change directly through projects. â€Å"[5] They mobilize financial resources, materials and volunteers to create localized programs in the field.They hold large scale fundraising events, apply to governments and organizations for grants and contracts in order to raise money for projects. They often operate in a hierarchical structure; with a main headquarters staffed by professionals who plan projects, create budgets, keep accounts, report, and communicate with operational fieldworkers who work directly on projects[5] Operational NGOs deal with a wide range of issues, but are most often associated with the delivery of services and welfare, emergency relief and environmental issues.Operational NGOs can be further categorized, one frequently used categorization is the division into relief-oriented versus development-oriented organizations; they can also be classified according to whether they stress service delivery or participation; or whether they are religious or secular; and whether they are more public or private-oriented. Operational NGOs can be community-based, national or international. The defining activity of operational NGOs is implementing projects. [5] Campaigning Campaigning NGOs seek to â€Å"achieve large scale change promoted indirectly through influence of the political system. [5] Campaigning NGOs need an efficient and effective group of professional members who are able to keep supporters informed, and motivated. They must plan and host demonstrations and events that will keep their cause in the media. They must maintain a large informed network of supporters who can be mobilized for events to garner media attention and influence policy changes. The defining activity of campaigning NGOs is holding demonstrations. [5] Campaigning NGOs often deal with issues relating to human rights, women's rights, children's rights. The primary purpose of an Advocacy NGO is to defend or promote a specific cause.As opposed to operational project management, these organizations typically try to raise awareness, acceptance and knowledge by lobbying, press work and activist event. Both It is not uncommon for NGOs to make use of both activities. Many times, operational NGOs will use campaigning techniques if they continually face the same issues in the field that could be remedied through policy changes. At the same time, Campaigning NGOs, like human rights organizations often have programs that assist the individual victims they are trying to help through their advocacy work. [5] Public relationsNon-governmental organizations need healthy relationships with the public to meet their goals. Foundations and charities use sophisticated public relations campaigns to raise funds and employ s tandard lobbying techniques with governments. Interest groups may be of political importance because of their ability to influence social and political outcomes. A code of ethics was established in 2002 by The World Association of Non Governmental NGOs. Project management There is an increasing awareness that management techniques are crucial to project success in non-governmental organizations. 11] Generally, non-governmental organizations that are private have either a community or environmental focus. They address varieties of issues such as religion, emergency aid, or humanitarian affairs. They mobilize public support and voluntary contributions for aid; they often have strong links with community groups in developing countries, and they often work in areas where government-to-government aid is not possible. NGOs are accepted as a part of the international relations landscape, and while they influence national and multilateral policy-making, increasingly they are more directly i nvolved in local action. Corporate structureStaffing Some NGOs are highly professionalized and rely mainly on paid staff. Others are based around voluntary labour and are less formalized. Not all people working for non-governmental organizations are volunteers. Many NGOs are associated with the use of international staff working in ‘developing' countries, but there are many NGOs in both North and South who rely on local employees or volunteers. There is some dispute as to whether expatriates should be sent to developing countries. Frequently this type of personnel is employed to satisfy a donor who wants to see the supported project managed by someone from an industrialized country.However, the expertise these employees or volunteers may be counterbalanced by a number of factors: the cost of foreigners is typically higher, they have no grassroot connections in the country they are sent to, and local expertise is often undervalued. [10] The NGO sector is an important employer i n terms of numbers. [citation needed] For example, by the end of 1995, CONCERN worldwide, an international Northern NGO working against poverty, employed 174 expatriates and just over 5,000 national staff working in ten developing countries in Africa and Asia, and in Haiti. FundingWhether the NGOs are small or large, various NGOs need budgets to operate. The amount of budget that they need would differ from NGOs to NGOs. Unlike small NGOs, large NGOs may have annual budgets in the hundreds of millions or billions of dollars. For instance, the budget of the American Association of Retired Persons (AARP) was over US$540 million in 1999. [12] Funding such large budgets demands significant fundraising efforts on the part of most NGOs. Major sources of NGO funding are membership dues, the sale of goods and services, grants from international institutions or national governments, and private donations.Several EU-grants provide funds accessible to NGOs. Even though the term â€Å"non-gove rnmental organization† implies independence from governments, many NGOs depend heavily on governments for their funding. [13] A quarter of the US$162 million income in 1998 of the famine-relief organization Oxfam was donated by the British government and the EU. The Christian relief and development organization World Vision United States collected US$55 million worth of goods in 1998 from the American government.Nobel Prize winner Medecins Sans Frontieres (MSF) (known in the USA as Doctors Without Borders) gets 46% of its income from government sources. [14] Government funding of NGOs is controversial, since, according to David Rieff, writing in The New Republic, â€Å"the whole point of humanitarian intervention was precisely that NGOs and civil society had both a right and an obligation to respond with acts of aid and solidarity to people in need or being subjected to repression or want by the forces that controlled them, whatever the governments concerned might think about the matter. [15] Some NGOs, such as Greenpeace do not accept funding from governments or intergovernmental organizations. [16][17] Overhead costs Overhead is the amount of money that is spent on running an NGO rather than on projects. [18] This includes office expenses,[18] salaries, banking and bookkeeping costs. What percentage of overall budget is spent on overhead is often used to judge an NGO with less than 10% being viewed as good. [18] The World Association of Non-Governmental Organizations states that ideally more than 80% should be spent on programs (less than 20% on overhead). 19] The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria has specific guidelines on how high overhead can be to receive funding based on how the money is to be spent with overhead often needing to be less than 5-7%. [20] While the World Bank typically allows 10%. [21] A high percentage of overhead to total expenditures can make it more difficult to generate funds. [22] High overhead costs may als o generate criticism with some claiming the certain NGOs with high overhead are being run simply to benefit the people working for them. [23] Monitoring and control In a March 2000 report on United Nations Reform priorities, former U.N. Secretary General Kofi Annan wrote in favor of international humanitarian intervention, arguing that the international community has a â€Å"right to protect†[24] citizens of the world against ethnic cleansing, genocide, and crimes against humanity. On the heels of the report, the Canadian government launched the Responsibility to Protect R2P[25] project, outlining the issue of humanitarian intervention. While the R2P doctrine has wide applications, among the more controversial has been the Canadian government's use of R2P to justify its intervention and support of the coup in Haiti. 26] Years after R2P, the World Federalist Movement, an organization which supports â€Å"the creation of democratic global structures accountable to the citizens of the world and call for the division of international authority among separate agencies†, has launched Responsibility to Protect – Engaging Civil Society (R2PCS). A collaboration between the WFM and the Canadian government, this project aims to bring NGOs into lockstep with the principles outlined under the original R2P project.The governments of the countries an NGO works or is registered in may require reporting or other monitoring and oversight. Funders generally require reporting and assessment, such information is not necessarily publicly available. There may also be associations and watchdog organizations that research and publish details on the actions of NGOs working in particular geographic or program areas. [citation needed] In recent years, many large corporations have increased their corporate social responsibility departments in an attempt to preempt NGO campaigns against certain corporate practices.As the logic goes, if corporations work with NGOs, NGOs will not work against corporations. In December 2007, The United States Department of Defense Assistant Secretary of Defense (Health Affairs) S. Ward Casscells established an International Health Division under Force Health Protection & Readiness. [27] Part of International Health's mission is to communicate with NGOs in areas of mutual interest. Department of Defense Directive 3000. 05,[28] in 2005, requires DoD to regard stability-enhancing activities as a mission of importance equal to combat.In compliance with international law, DoD has necessarily built a capacity to improve essential services in areas of conflict such as Iraq, where the customary lead agencies (State Department and USAID) find it difficult to operate. Unlike the â€Å"co-option† strategy described for corporations, the OASD(HA) recognizes the neutrality of health as an essential service. International Health cultivates collaborative relationships with NGOs, albeit at arms-length, recognizing their trad itional independence, expertise and honest broker status.While the goals of DoD and NGOs may seem incongruent, the DoD's emphasis on stability and security to reduce and prevent conflict suggests, on careful analysis, important mutual interests. History International non-governmental organizations have a history dating back to at least 1839. [29] It has been estimated that by 1914, there were 1083 NGOs. [30] International NGOs were important in the anti-slavery movement and the movement for women's suffrage, and reached a peak at the time of the World Disarmament Conference. 31] However, the phrase â€Å"non-governmental organization† only came into popular use with the establishment of the United Nations Organization in 1945 with provisions in Article 71 of Chapter 10 of the United Nations Charter[32] for a consultative role for organizations which are neither governments nor member states—see Consultative Status. The definition of â€Å"international NGO† (ING O) is first given in resolution 288 (X) of ECOSOC on February 27, 1950: it is defined as â€Å"any international organization that is not founded by an international treaty†.The vital role of NGOs and other â€Å"major groups† in sustainable development was recognized in Chapter 27[33] of Agenda 21, leading to intense arrangements for a consultative relationship between the United Nations and non-governmental organizations. [34] It has been observed that the number of INGO founded or dissolved matches the general â€Å"state of the world†, rising in periods of growth and declining in periods of crisis. [35] Rapid development of the non-governmental sector occurred in western countries as a result of the processes of restructuring of the welfare state.Further globalization of that process occurred after the fall of the communist system and was an important part of the Washington consensus. [13] Globalization during the 20th century gave rise to the importance of NGOs. Many problems could not be solved within a nation. International treaties and international organizations such as the World Trade Organization were centred mainly on the interests of capitalist enterprises. In an attempt to counterbalance this trend, NGOs have developed to emphasize humanitarian issues, developmental aid and sustainable development.A prominent example of this is the World Social Forum, which is a rival convention to the World Economic Forum held annually in January in Davos, Switzerland. The fifth World Social Forum in Porto Alegre, Brazil, in January 2005 was attended by representatives from more than 1,000 NGOs. [36] In terms of environmental issues and sustainable development, the Earth Summit in Rio in 1992 was the first to show the power of international NGOs, when about 2,400 representatives of NGOs came to play a central role in deliberations.Some have argued that in forums like these, NGOs take the place of what should belong to popular movements of th e poor. Whatever the case, NGO transnational networking is now extensive. [37] Legal status The legal form of NGOs is diverse and depends upon homegrown variations in each country's laws and practices. However, four main family groups of NGOs can be found worldwide:[38] * Unincorporated and voluntary association * Trusts, charities and foundations * Companies not just for profit Entities formed or registered under special NGO or nonprofit laws The Council of Europe in Strasbourg drafted the European Convention on the Recognition of the Legal Personality of International Non-Governmental Organizations in 1986, which sets a common legal basis for the existence and work of NGOs in Europe. Article 11 of the European Convention on Human Rights protects the right to freedom of association, which is also a fundamental norm for NGOs. Critiques Stuart Becker provides the following summary of the primary critiques of NGOs: There’s a debate that, NGOs take the place of what should belon g to popular movements of the poor.Others argue that NGOs are often imperialist in nature, that they sometimes operate in a racist manner in Third World countries and that they fulfill a similar function to that of the clergy during the colonial era. Philosopher Peter Hallward argues that they are an aristocratic form of politics. â€Å"[39] Issa G. Shivji is one of Africa's leading experts on law and development issues as an author and academic. His critique on NGOs is found in two essays: â€Å"Silences in NGO discourse: The role and future of NGOs in Africa† and â€Å"Reflections on NGOs in Tanzania: What we are, what we are not and what we ought to be†.Shivji argues that despite the good intentions of NGO leaders and activists, he is critical of the â€Å"objective effects of actions, regardless of their intentions†. [40] Shivji argues also that the sudden rise of NGOs are part of a neoliberal paradigm rather than pure altruistic motivations. He is critical of the current manifestations of NGOs wanting to change the world without understanding it, and that the imperial relationship continues today with the rise of NGOs. James Pfeiffer, in his case study of NGO involvement in Mozambique, speaks to the negative effects that NGO's have had on areas of health within the country.He argues that over the last decade, NGO's in Mozambique have â€Å"fragmented the local health system, undermined local control of health programs, and contributed to growing local social inequality† [41] He notes further that NGO's can be uncoordinated, creating parallel projects among different organizations, that pull health service workers away from their routine duties in order to serve the interests of the NGO's. This ultimately undermines local primary health care efforts, and takes away the governments ability to maintain agency over their own health sector. 42] J. Pfeiffer suggested a new model of collaboration between the NGO and the DPS (the Moza mbique Provincial Health Directorate). He mentioned the NGO should be ‘formally held to standard and adherence within the host country', for example reduce ‘showcase' projects and parallel programs that proves to be unsustainable. [43] Jessica Mathews once wrote in Foreign Affairs in 1997: â€Å"For all their strengths, NGOs are special interests. The best of them †¦ often suffer from tunnel vision, judging every public act by how it affects their particular interest†. 44] Since NGOs do have to worry about policy trade-offs, the overall impact of their cause might bring more harm to society. [45] Vijay Prashad argues that from the 1970s â€Å"The World Bank, under Robert McNamara, championed the NGO as an alternative to the state, leaving intact global and regional relations of power and production. â€Å"[46] Others argue that NGOs are often imperialist[47] in nature, that they sometimes operate in a racialized manner in third world countries, and that the y fulfill a similar function to that of the clergy during the high colonial era.The philosopher Peter Hallward argues that they are an aristocratic form of politics. [48] Popular movements in the global South such as, for instance, the Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign in South Africa have sometimes refused to work with NGOs arguing that this will compromise their autonomy. [49][50] Another criticism of NGOs is that they are being designed and used as extensions of the normal foreign-policy instruments of certain Western countries and groups of countries. 51] Russian President Vladimir Putin made this accusation at the 43rd Munich Conference on Security Policy in 2007, concluding that these NGOs â€Å"are formally independent but they are purposefully financed and therefore under control. â€Å"[52] Also, Michael Bond wrote â€Å"Most large NGOs, such as Oxfam, the Red Cross, Cafod and Action Aid, are striving to make their aid provision more sustainable. But some, mostly in th e US, are still exporting the ideologies of their backers. † [53] Indeed, whether the NGOs are adiding for evangelical purposes or their ideological intentions, various NGOs are examined and accused of their nature.There has also been the overwhelming disaster of NGOs using white lies or misinformed advise to enact their campaigns. In other words, NGOs have been quite ignorant about critical issues because, as chief scientist at Greenpeace Doug Parr claims, these organizations have lost their efforts in being trully scientific and are now more self-interested. Rather than operating through science so as to be rationally and effectively practical, NGOs are now abusing the utilization of science in order to gain their own advantages.In the beginning, as Parr indicated, there was â€Å"‘a tendency among our critics to say that science is the only decision-making tool . . . but political and commerical interests are using science as a cover for getting their way. ‘â⠂¬ [54] At the same time, NGOs have shown themselves not to be very cooperative with other groups, as the previous policy-maker for the German branch of Friends of the Earth Jens Katjek acknowledged. â€Å"If NGOs want the best for the environment, he says, they have to learn to compromise. â€Å"[55] Challenges to legitimacy The issue of the legitimacy of NGOs raises a series of important questions.This is one of the most important assets possessed by an NGO, it is gained through a perception that they are an â€Å"independent voice†. [56][57] Their representation also emerges as an important question. Who bestows responsibilities to NGOs or INGOs and how do they gain the representation of citizens and civil society is still not scrutinized thoroughly. For instance, in the article, it is stated, â€Å"To put the point starkly: are the citizens of countries of the South and their needs represented in global civil society, or are citizens as well as their needs constructed by practices of representation?And when we realize that INGOs hardly ever come face to face with the people whose interests and problems they represent, or that they are not accountable to the people they represent, matters become even more troublesome. † [58] Moreover, the legitimacy and the accountability of NGOs on the point of their true nature are also emerging as important issues. Various perceptions and images on NGOs are provided, and usually implemented in an image as ‘non-state actors' or ‘influential representatives of civil society that advocate the citizen. Accountability may be able to provide this and also be able to assist activities by providing focus and direction[59] As non-state actors with considerable influence over the governance in many areas, concerns have been expressed over the extent to which they represent the views of the public and the extent to which they allow the public to hold them to account. [60] The origin of funding can have serious implications for the legitimacy of NGOs. In recent decades NGOs have increased their numbers and range of activities to a level where they have become increasingly dependent on a limited number of donors. 60] Consequently competition has increased for funding, as have the expectations of the donors themselves. [61] This runs the risk of donors adding conditions which can threaten the independence of NGOs, an over-dependence on official aid has the potential to dilute â€Å"the willingness of NGOs to speak out on issues which are unpopular with governments†. [57] In these situations NGOs are being held accountable by their donors, which can erode rather than enhance their legitimacy, a difficult challenge to overcome. Some commentators have also argued that the changes in where NGOs receive their funding has ultimately altered their functions. 57] NGOs have also been challenged on the grounds that they do not necessarily represent the needs of the developing world, thr ough diminishing the so-called â€Å"Southern Voice†. Some postulate that the North-South division exists in the arena of NGOs. [62] They question the equality of the relationships between Northern and Southern parts of the same NGOs as well as the relationships between Southern and Northern NGOs working in partnerships. This suggests a division of labour may develop, with the North taking the lead in advocacy and resource mobilisation whilst the South engages in service delivery in the developing world. 62] The potential implications of this may mean that the needs of the developing world are not addressed appropriately as Northern NGOs do not properly consult or participate in partnerships. The real danger in this situation is that western views may take the front seat and assign unrepresentative priorities. [63] The flood of NGOs has also been accused of damaging the public sector in multiple developing countries. The mismanagement of NGOs has resulted in the break down of public health care systems.Instead of promoting equity and alleviating poverty, NGOs have been under scrutiny for contributing to socioeconomic inequality and disempowering the services in the public sector of third world countries. [64] The scale and variety of activities in which NGOs participate has grown rapidly since the 1980s, witnessing particular expansion in the 1990s. [65] This has presented NGOs with need to balance the pressures of centralisation and decentralisation. By centralising NGOs, particularly those that operate at an international level, they can assign a common theme or set of goals.Conversely it is also advantageous to decentralise as this increases the chances of an NGO behaving flexibly and effectively to localised issues. [66] See also * Charitable organization * Civil society * Community foundation * NGO-isation * Non-governmental organizations by country * Non-profit organization * Not just for profit * Occupational health and safety * Track II diplomac y References 1. ^ Anheier et al. , â€Å"Global Civil Society 2001†, 2001 2. ^ â€Å"Hobbled NGOs wary of Medvedev†. Chicago Tribune. May 7, 2008. 3. ^ â€Å"India: More NGOs, than schools and health centres†. OneWorld. net. July 7, 2010.Retrieved 2011-10-07. 4. ^ â€Å"First official estimate: An NGO for every 400 people in India†. The Indian Express. July 7, 2010. 5. ^ a b c d e f g h Willetts, Peter. â€Å"What is a Non-Governmental Organization? â€Å". UNESCO Encyclopaedia of Life Support Systems. City University London. Retrieved 18 July 2012. 6. ^ Iriye, Akira (2004). Global community  : the role of international organizations in the making of the contemporary world (1. paperback print. ed. ). Berkeley, Calif. [u. a. ]: Univ. of California Press. ISBN  9780520231283. 7. ^ inspad. org 8. ^ Keck and Sikkink. â€Å"Environmental Advocacy Networks†.Books. google. com. Retrieved 2011-12-20. 9. ^ McCormick, John. â€Å"The Role of Environme ntal NGOs in International Regimes†. Books. google. com. Retrieved 2011-12-20. 10. ^ a b World Bank Criteria defining NGO[dead link] 11. ^ 100   LSE. ac. uk, Mukasa, Sarah. Are expatriate staff necessary in international development NGOs? A case study of an international NGO in Uganda. Publication of the Centre for Civil Society at London School of Economics. 2002, p. 11–13. 12. ^ â€Å"Poll shows power of AIPAC drops slightly†. Jewish News Weekly of Northern California. 1999-12-19. Retrieved 2007-06-25. 13. a b Pawel Zaleski Global Non-governmental Administrative System: Geosociology of the Third Sector, [in:] Gawin, Dariusz ; Glinski, Piotr [ed. ]: â€Å"Civil Society in the Making†, IFiS Publishers, Warszawa 2006 14. ^ Intractable Conflict Knowledge Base Project of the Conflict Research Consortium at the University of Colorado. [dead link] 15. ^ NG-Uh-O – The trouble with humanitarianism David Rieff, June 10, 2010, The New Republic 16. ^ Sarah Jane Gilbert (2008-09-08). â€Å"Harvard Business School, HBS Cases: The Value of Environmental Activists†. Hbswk. hbs. edu. Retrieved 011-12-20. 17. ^ Greenpeace, Annual Report 2008 (pdf) 18. ^ a b c http://www. fundsforngos. org/budget-for-ngos/defining-terms-budget/ 19. ^ â€Å"Code of Ethics & Conduct for NGOs†. Retrieved 11 April 2012. 20. ^ â€Å"National NGOs Serving as PRs Excluded from the Global Fund's Policy on Percentage-Based Overhead Costs†. 2012. 21. ^ Kuby, Christopher Gibbs  ; Claudia Fumo  ; Thomas (1999). Nongovernmental organizations in World Bank supported projects  : a review (2. ed. ed. ). Washington, D. C. : World Bank. pp. 21. ISBN  978-0-8213-4456-9. 22. ^ Crowther, edited by Guler Aras, David (2010).NGOs and social responsibility (1st ed. ed. ). Bingley, UK: Emerald. pp. 121. ISBN  978-0-85724-295-2. 23. ^ Kassahun, Samson (2004). Social capital for synergic partnership  : development of poor localities in urban Ethiopia (1 . Aufl. ed. ). Gottingen: Cuvillier. pp. 153. ISBN  978-3-86537-222-2. 24. ^ [1][dead link] 25. ^ [2][dead link]  PDF  (434  KB) 26. ^ Engler, Fenton, Yves, Anthony (2005). Canada in Haiti: Waging War on the Poor Majority. Vancouver, Winnipeg: RED Publishing. p. 120. ISBN  978-1-55266-168-0. Retrieved 2011-10-30. 27. ^ OSD. mil 28. ^ http://www. dtic. mil/whs/directives/corres/pdf/300005p. df 29. ^ The Rise and Fall of Transnational Civil Society: The Evolution of International Non-Governmental Organizations since 1839. By T. R. Davies City University London Working Paper. Steve Charnovitz, â€Å"Two Centuries of Participation: NGOs and International Governance, Michigan Journal of International Law, Winter 1997. 30. ^ Subcontracting Peace – The Challenges of NGO Peacebuilding. Edited by: Richmond, Oliver P. , and Carey, Henry F. Published by Ashgate, 2005. Page 21. 31. ^ Davies, Thomas Richard (2007). The Possibilities of Transnational Activism: the Campaign for D isarmament between the Two World Wars.ISBN  978-90-04-16258-7. 32. ^ Charter of the United Nations: Chapter X[dead link] 33. ^ United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. â€Å"Agenda 21 – Chapter 27: Strengthening the Role of Non-governmental Organizations: Partners for Sustainable Development, Earth Summit, 1992†. Habitat. igc. org. Retrieved 2011-12-20. 34. ^ â€Å"1996/31. Consultative relationship between the United Nations and non-governmental organizations†. Un. org. Retrieved 2011-12-20. 35. ^ Boli, J. and Thomas, G. M. (1997) World Culture in the World Polity: A century of International Non-Governmental Organization.American Sociological Review. pp. 177 36. ^ Bartlett, Lauren (2005). â€Å"NGO Update†. Human Rights Brief 12 (3): 44–45. 37. ^ Stone, Diane. â€Å"Transfer Agents and Global Networks in the ‘Transnationalisation’ of Policy†, Journal of European Public Policy. austiniskewl, 11(3) 2004: 545â⠂¬â€œ66. 38. ^ Grant B. Stillman (2007), Global Standard NGOs, Geneva: Lulu, pp. 13-14. 39. ^ Stuart Alan Becker (January 28, 2011). â€Å"The definitive description of a non-government organisation†. The Phnom Penh Post. Retrieved 2011-09-19. 40. ^ Shivji, Issa G. (2007). Silence in NGO discourse: the role and future of NGOs in Africa.Oxford, UK: Fahamu. p. 84. ISBN  978-0-9545637-5-2. 41. ^ Pfeiffer, J. 2003. International NGOs and primary health care in Mozambique: the need for a new model of collaboration. Social Science & Medicine 56 (4):725. 42. ^ Pfeiffer, J. 2003. International NGOs and primary health care in Mozambique: the need for a new model of collaboration. Social Science & Medicine 56 (4):725-738. 43. ^ J. Pfeiffer. (2003). International NGOs and primary health care in Mozambique: the need for a new model of collaboration. Social Science & Medicine 56 (2003) 725-738 44. ^ Jessica T.Mathews (Jan. – Feb. , 1997). â€Å"Power Shift†. Foreign Affair s. Retrieved 2012-06-01. 45. ^ Bond, M. (2000) The Backlash against NGOs. Prospect (magazine). 46. ^ Mother Teresa: A Communist View, Vijay Prashad, Australian Marxist Review, No. 40 August 1998 47. ^ Abahlali baseMjondoloRethinking Public Participation from below, ‘Critical Dialogue', 2006 48. ^ See his Damming the Flood (Verso, London, 2007. ) 49. ^ Building unity in diversity: Social movement activism in the Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign, Sophie Oldfield & Kristian Stokke, 2004 50. Ashraf Cassiem: South African Resistance Against Evictions, Marlon Crump, Poor Magazine, 2009 51. ^ ‘NGO’: The Guise of Innocence, by Jenny O'Connor, New Left Project, 2012 52. ^ Putin, Vladimir (February 10, 2007). Speech and the Following Discussion at the Munich Conference on Security Policy (Speech). 43rd Munich Conference on Security Policy. Munich, Germany. Retrieved February 28, 2012. 53. ^ Bond, Michael. â€Å"The Backlash against NGOs. † Prospect, April 2000, pp . 321. Print 54. ^ Bond, Michael. â€Å"The Backlash against NGOs. † Prospect, April 2000, pp. 323. Print 55. Bond, Michael. â€Å"The Backlash against NGOs. † Prospect, April 200, pp. 323. Print 56. ^ Weber, N. and Christopherson, T. (2002) The influence of non-givernmental organisations on the creation of Natura 2000 during the European policy process. Forest policy and Economics. 4(1), pp. 1-12. 57. ^ a b c Edwards, M. and Hulme, D. (2002) NGO Performance and Accountability: Introduction and Overview. â€Å"In: Edwards, M. and Hulme, D. , ed. 2002. † The Earthscan Reader on NGO Management. UK: Earthscan Publications Ltd. Chapter 11. 58. ^ Neera Chandhoke. (2005) â€Å"How Global Is Global Civil Society? Journal of World-Systems Research, 11, 2, 2005, pp. 326-327. 59. ^ Edwards, M. and Hulme, D. (2002) Beyond the Magic Bullet? Lessons and Conclusions. â€Å"In: Edwards, M. and Hulme, D. , ed. 2002. † The Earthscan Reader on NGO Management. UK: Earthsca n Publications Ltd. Chapter 12. 60. ^ a b Edwards, M. and Hulme, D. (1996) Too Close for comfort? The impact of official aid on Non-Governmental Organisations. â€Å"World Development. † 24(6), pp. 961-973. 61. ^ Ebrahim, A. (2003) Accountability in practice: Mechanisms for NGOs. â€Å"World Development. † 31(5), pp. 813-829. 62. ^ a b Lindenberg, M. and Bryant, C. 2001) Going Global:Transforming Relief and Development NGOs. Bloomfield: Kumarian Press. 63. ^ Jenkins, R. (2001) Corporate Codes of Conduct: Self-Regulation in a Global Economy. â€Å"Technology, Business and Society Programme Paper Number 2. † United Nations Research Institute for Social Development. 64. ^ Pfeiffer, J. 2003. International NGOs and primary health care in Mozambique: the need for a new model of collaboration. Social Science ; Medicine 56(4):725-738. 65. ^ Avina, J. (1993) The Evolutionary Life Cycles if Non-Governmental Development Organisations. â€Å"Public Administration and Devel opment. † 13(5), pp. 53-474. 66. ^ Anheier, H. and Themudo, N. (2002) Organisational forms of global civil society: Implications of going global. In: Anheier, H. Glasius, M. Kaldor, M, ed 2002. Further reading * Mark Butler, with Thulani Ndlazi, David Ntseng, Graham Philpott, and Nomusa Sokhela. NGO Practice and the Possibility of Freedom Church Land Programme, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa 2007 Churchland. co. za[dead link] * Olivier Berthoud, NGOs: Somewhere between Compassion, Profitability and Solidarity Envio. org. ni, PDF Edinter. net Envio, Managua, 2001 * Terje Tvedt, 19982/2003: Angels of Mercy or Development Diplomats.NGOs ; Foreign Aid, Oxford: James Currey * Steve W. Witt, ed. Changing Roles of NGOs in the Creation, Storage, and Dissemination of Information in Developing Countries (Saur, 2006). ISBN 3-598-22030-8 * Cox, P. N. Shams, G. C. Jahn, P. Erickson and P. Hicks. 2002. Building collaboration between NGOs and agricultural research institutes. Cambodian Journ al of Agriculture 6: 1-8. IRRI. org[dead link] * Ann Florini, ed. The Third Force: The Rise of Transnational Civil Society (Carnegie Endowment for International Peace and Japan Center for International Exchange, 2001). Margaret Keck and Kathryn Sikkink. 1998. Activists Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics. Cornell University Press * Rodney Bruce Hall, and Biersteker, Thomas. The Emergence of Private Authority in Global Governance (Cambridge Studies in International Relations, 2003) * Dorthea Hilhorst, The Real World of NGOs: Discourses, Diversity and Development, Zed Books, 2003 * Joan Roelofs, Foundations and Public Policy: The Mask of Pluralism (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2003). Ian Smillie, ; Minear, Larry, editors. The Charity of Nations: Humanitarian Action in a Calculating World, Kumarian Press, 2004 * Simon Maxwell and Diane Stone. (eds) Global Knowledge Networks and International Development: Bridges Across Boundaries (Routledge, 2005: I-xix; 1-192). * Sidney Tarrow, The New Transnational Activism, New York  :Cambridge University Press, 2005 * Thomas Ward, editor. Development, Social Justice, and Civil Society: An Introduction to the Political Economy of NGOs, Paragon House, 2005 * H. Teegen, 2003. International NGOs as Global Institutions: Using Social Capital to Impact Multinational Enterprises and Governments’, Journal of International Management. * Jennifer Brinkerhoff, Stephen C. Smith, and Hildy Teegen, NGOs and the Millennium Development Goals: Citizen Action to Reduce Poverty, Palgrave Macmillan, 2007. * S. Goonatilake. Recolonisation: Foreign Funded NGO's in Sri Lanka, Sage Publications 2006. * Teegen, H. Doh, J. , Vachani, S. , 2004. â€Å"The importance of nongovernmental organisation in global governance and value creation: an international business research agendaâ€Å" in Journal of International Business Studies.Washington: Vol. 35, Iss. 6. * K. Rodman, (1998). â€Å"‘Think Global ly, Punish Locally: Nonstate Actors, Multinational Corporations, and Human Rights Sanctions† in Ethics in International Affairs, vol. 12. * Grant B. Stillman (2006), NGO Law and Governance: a resource book, ADB Institute, Tokyo, ISBN 4-89974-013-1. More useful are regional histories and analyses of the experience of NGOs. Specific works (although this is by no means an exhaustive list) include: * T. R. Davies, The Possibilities of Transnational Activism: The Campaign for Disarmament between the Two World Wars, Brill, 2007.ISBN 3-598-22030-8 * H. Englund, Prisoners of Freedom: Human Rights & the Africa Poor, University of California Press, 2006 * Carrie Meyer, The Economics and Politics of NGOs in Latin America, Praeger Publishers, July 30, 1999 * Chhandasi Pandya. 2006. Private Authority and Disaster Relief: The Cases of Post-Tsunami Aceh and Nias. Critical Asian Studies. Vol. 38, No. 2. Pg. 298-308. Routledge Press: Taylor & Francis Group * Maha Abdelrahman, Civil Society Exp osed: The Politics of NGOs in Egypt, The American University in Cairo Press, 2004.Al-Ahram Weekly has done a review of the book. * Sangeeta Kamat, Development hegemony: NGOs and The State in India, Delhi, New York; Oxford University Press, 2002 * Adama Sow, Chancen und Risiken von NGOs – Die Gewerkschaften in Guinea wahrend der Unruhen 2007 – EPU Research Papers: Issue 03/07, Stadtschlaining 2007 (German) * Lyal S. Sunga, â€Å"Dilemmas facing INGOs in coalition-occupied Iraq†, in Ethics in Action: The Ethical Challenges of International Human Rights Nongovernmental Organizations, edited by Daniel A. Bell and Jean-Marc Coicaud, Cambridge Univ. and United Nations Univ.Press, 2007. * Lyal S. Sunga, â€Å"NGO Involvement in International Human Rights Monitoring, International Human Rights Law and Non-Governmental Organizations† (2005) 41-69. * Werker & Ahmed (2008): What do Non-Governmental Organizations do? * Steve Charnovitz, â€Å"Two Centuries of Partic ipation: NGOs and International Governance,† Michigan Journal of International Law, Vol. 18, Winter 1997, at 183-286. * Abahlali baseMjondolo Rethinking Public Participation from Below, ‘Critical Dialogue', 2006 * Akpan S. M (2010): Establishment of Non-Governmental Organizations (In Press). Edward A. L. Turner (2010) Why Has the Number of International Non-Governmental Organizations Exploded since 1960? , Cliodynamics, 1, (1). Retrieved from: [3] * Eugene Fram & Vicki Brown, How Using the Corporate Model Makes a Nonprofit Board More Effective & Efficient – Third Edition (2011), Amazon Books, Create Space Books. The de facto reference resource for information and statistics on International NGOs (INGOs) and other transnational organisational forms is the Yearbook of International Organizations, produced by the Union of International Associations. David Lewis and Nazneen Kanji (2009): Non-Governmental Organizations and Development. New York: Routledge. * Issa G. Sh ivji (2007): Silence in NGO Discourse: The Role and Future of NGOs in Africa. Nairobi: Fahamu. * Jens Steffek and Kristina Hahn (2010): Evaluating Transnational NGOs: Legitimacy, Accountability, Representation. New York: Palgrave, Macmillan. External links * NGO Search: NGO/IGO google custom search engine built by the Govt Documents Round Table (GODORT) of the American Library Association. * Interface journal special issue on NGOs * A brief history of Non-Governmental Organizations Historical Database of International NGOs * Duke University NGO Library * Global Policy Forum: The site includes articles on a wide range of aspects of NGOs. * NGOs – Non-Governmental Organizations * What is a Non-Governmental Organization? 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