How To Create A Website Using WordPress - EssaySupply.com

How To Create A Website Using WordPress How to Create a Website Using WordPress Not very long ago, the process of creating a website was quite complex. If you wanted a nice looking website where visitors would actually enjoy spending time, you had to master HTML, JavaScript, or other languages in order to build and launch a decent site. Your other option was to use an online website template. Unfortunately, the web sites generated using those were clunky and hard to navigate. Now, there is another option. WordPress is a utility that allows people to create professional looking blogs and websites without having to master any technical skills. In fact, creating a WordPress website is quite simple. If you are willing to learn a few tips and techniques, you could potentially have your own website up and running in just a few hours. First Things First: Get Signed Up To start, go to the WordPress website and get signed up. You’ll be able to set up a user account and choose password. You’ll also be able to choose the name of your website. WordPress gives you two options. The first is free, and will look like this: www.yourwebsitename.wordpress.com. The other costs a nominal amount of money and looks like this: www.yourwebsitename.com. There are other more costly options if you want to set your website up as an e-commerce store. Now, Take a Look Around WordPress Once your profile has been created and you have selected your website name and title, take a look around your dashboard. This is where you will do all of the work required to keep your website   up to date and running smoothly. If you cannot figure everything out, don’t worry. WordPress has plenty of tutorials.   You can also submit questions to a customer service agent, or use their forums to find answers. Picking Your Theme Your theme is the thing that will give your website personality. If you are launching a personal or business website and you care about branding, it is very important to choose a theme that works for you. Remember though, you can customize themes by adding your own images and making other changes.   These include custom images, fonts, adding your own titles and headers, and colors. Start Writing With WordPress, you either write posts or you write pages. A post is like a blog post. When you publish a new post, that is what your visitors see, and your previous posts are pushed down the page. When you publish a page, that is appears in the same way a new page appears on a website. Remember that your website can have both posts and pages. For example, you may have a contact page, a home page, and a products page, but you may also have a blog page where you publish new posts. You can set up menus and navigation links to help your visitors find their way around your website. Check Out Some PlugIns PlugIns are nifty little utilities that you can use to make your WordPress website even better. PlugIns can be used to make your site load faster for visitors, help you manage user comments, publish your logo onto all of your pages, stream content from news feeds, and a variety of other helpful things. There are even plugins that will verify all of the links on your WordPress site so that you can fix any dead links and make sure the content that you link is still appropriate. If you can set up a WordPress website, you can use it for many things. You could launch that small business, or you could simply set up a website to launch your personal brand or discuss your interests. As always, if you need help with web content (remember you can count on us for more than helping you buy college essays online), our writers will be happy to assist.

QUIZ What grade you should teach based on your personality

QUIZ What grade you should teach based on your personality Becoming a teacher is such a rewarding fulfilling career. Teachers have the ability to make learning fun with creative spins on new concepts, constantly learning, and being able to still enjoy having summers off. As a teacher, you inspire and impact the lives of many children. Thinking about becoming a teacher but not quite sure what grade you should teach? This quiz is perfect to help you decide what grade you should teach based on your personality.Source [ Playbuzz ]

Critically evaluate the operational activity of Singapore Airlines Essay

Critically evaluate the operational activity of Singapore Airlines - Essay Example The intention of this study is Singapore Airlines as one of the best rated airline companies operating in the globe. The highly turbulent and capital intensive industry segment generates a considerable need for organizations like Singapore airlines to ensure better operational abilities. Considering the fact that the domestic market of the nation is very small hence the airline needs to use the international route to stay in the business and maintain profitability and sustainability. Moreover the competitive price wars being introduced into the market by the advent of the low cost carriers also plays a major threat to the profitability and sustainability of companies like Singapore Airlines. Hence it is imperative for Singapore Airlines to ensure operational excellence that can help the company stay afloat in the highly turbulent and competitive business market. Singapore airlines have crafted a well structured operational strategy to maintain sustainability and retain the competitiv e edge. In this regard the company has procured new and advanced aircrafts like Boeing 777 and 747 to save on costs and generate efficiency. It is the first company to have used the world’s largest carrier for long haul flights generating greater revenue per unit spent on operations. The airline also had a good fuel hedging strategy under which the airline was the first among the major airline companies having international operations to be able to fully offset the entire quantum of price element by virtue of hedging strategies. This helped the company to save on costs in the highly volatile oil market that is characterised by heavy fluctuations and skyrocketing prices (Morrell & Swan, 2006, p.14). Singapore airlines have also used the hub and spoke model to enhance its reach to new areas. The airline has made Singapore the hub and draws passengers from neighbouring nations to its hub in smaller aircrafts. From its hub the company uses larger aircrafts like Boeing 747 and Air bus A380 to fly to far off destinations. In this way the company tries to use the international market to generate revenues. This assumes importance considering the fact that Singapore is a very small nation with a very small market and hence in order to maintain profitability and sustainability the company needs to tap the international audience. Figure 1: Operational Statistics-Singapore Airlines (Source: Singapore Airlines, 2010, p. 6) The figure shown above illustrates the operational aspects of the airline company. The figure clearly states that the carrier has generated a one percent change in the number of passengers carried with the figure at actual being 16647 (in thousands). The passenger load factor that is a measure of an airline’s usage of its capacity has also shown a slight improvement of 0.1 percentage point to 78.5 percent. However the figure is considerably impressive considering the dip in the number of passengers owing to recessionary activities in the eco nomy and the advent of low cost carriers in the market. The figure for available seat kilometres has also shown an increase by about 2.3 percent. This implies that the carrier has augmented its efficiency in using its available passenger seats. The figure for revenue passenger kilometres also shows a significant increase of 2.3 percent to 84801.3 million kilometres in the year 2010-11. This implies that Singapore Airlines has generated greater efficiency in generating revenues by flying passengers over greater distances. The measure of passenger yield has also risen by about 14.4 percent to reach figures of 11.9 cents per kilometre. This implies that the company generated greater fare as revenue flowing per mile from the passengers across various routes. The increase in the value over its previous year shows that the company

Training and Development Relate to Human Resource Essay

Training and Development Relate to Human Resource - Essay Example Formal mentoring can also be subject to monitoring by Human Resource managers and others within an organization to make sure objectives are met. Informal mentoring is more of a natural relationship that develops between two individuals with mutual respect, who become involved in the relationship on a purely voluntary basis. Such mentoring is more common and usually more flexible in nature. There is a lack of outside influence and structure, with participants defining the skills and behaviors taught, within their own time frame. There has been much information gathered from mentored involved in such relationships, though not as much from mentors. Manda Rosser (2005) identifies characteristics of mentoring relationships in her study of CEOs a mentors who have been previously mentored. First, most of them recognize the value of such relationships, as many described such relationships as helpful to their current positions and professional skills. Second, most identify mentoring relations hips as long-lasting, often over periods of several decades. Even when the mentoring has negative results, those studied admit that the mentoring relationships Mentoring and Apprenticeship Training HRM420 Term Paper 2 are valuable learning tools. One executive talks about his own mentoring relationship as one in which he was hurt and taken advantage of. Because of the experience, he mentors with an attitude of fairness and giving. Another executive describes mentoring as â€Å"perhaps even one of the most important things that can occur in developing others. Mentoring is giving of yourself. There is no expectation of return†(Rosser, 2005, p.547).

Heuristics Lead to Predictable Biases and Inconsistencies Essay Example for Free

Heuristics Lead to Predictable Biases and Inconsistencies Essay The human brain is complex, most especially as a specimen for study regarding decision-making and problem solving. The brain uses very precise methods of compression in order to distinguish the most important features of a certain sensory data. Because of human error, these methods are not perfect. Humans obtain large numbers of sensory data a day, even terabytes worth to be more precise. Most of what a person sees within the day gets erased from his memory, yet tiny pieces of data remain. These are converted into symbolic format, which would connect to the person’s experiences once he is in contact with it. When the sensory data gets abstracted it then becomes symbolical to the person and taken from long-term memory, certain biasing effects arise. â€Å"Biases also operate when the symbols are invoked and manipulated for cognitive operations. † The results of these are our belief systems, representation and anchoring. Anchoring refers to the process where people form beliefs around an anchor and every incoming data should relate towards that anchor even though significantly irrelevant. Representation â€Å"occurs when people expect their outputs to resemble the generating process.† Yet representation doesn’t prove efficient and always true, and this is due mainly because of human bias. Representation and anchoring are examples of heuristics. They are more commonly described as â€Å"rules of thumb† which humans use in reasoning in cognitively economical ways. These are inscribed in the human brain, and it is the same for all, as we all have a pair of hands and a pair of eyes. Heuristics started in the late 1960s and early 1970s and devised by Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman where they focused their studies on human judgment. Heuristics replaced rational judgment and the algorithmic method where they theorized that judgment in uncertainty rests on a limited number of heuristics rather than other more complicated methods. Heuristics became accepted and spread upon almost all forms of knowledge – economics, medicine, law, psychology and political science. This study was revolutionary in its time because â€Å"it simultaneously questioned the descriptive adequacy of ideal models of judgment and offered a cognitive alternative that explained human error without invoking motivated irrationality. † Kahneman and Tversky’s study revolved around the assumption of â€Å"bounded rationality†. In their study, they have also showed that humans indeed are very limited in processing and are probable to erroneous judgment, they attest to the earlier models of judgment where not fit to humans since they are much simpler than what is really happens in human decision making. After wide acceptance and a moving away from the rational decision-making patterns devised in the past, where humans are thought to always choose the best decision by means of probability, Heuristics is still seen to have inconsistencies and laden with biases. The whole concept of Heuristics gives a structured way of problem solving, taking into consideration human brain function and capacity which inevitably makes the process easier. As compared to the old model of thinking where humans are always seen to know probability and choose the best way based on probability computation, Heuristics give a deeper understanding of the human condition. Some failures of heuristics enter when it is presented with data that is not part of its â€Å"domain of expertise† or what is already previously calculated. Biases are a key error in using heuristics for problem solving. A cognitive bias is defined as â€Å"any of a wide range of observer effects identified in cognitive science and social psychology including very basic statistical, social attribution, and memory errors that are common to all human beings. † Biases that are in direct relation to decision making and problem solving affect scientific methods technically designed to eliminate these exact chances of bias. Biases in Heuristics are difficult to notice for three reasons. First, the human thinking process that is used to judge and assess in problem solving is in itself full of biases. Second, biases are common and widespread that it is difficult to notice and third, the decisions that are made through the use of Heuristics feel good therefore it satisfies the person, regardless if it right or wrong. According to a University of Pennsylvania law school research paper, principal findings in behavioral economics and cognitive psychology through the years have shown in studies that humans â€Å"deviate from ideal precepts of rationality in many settings, showcasing inconsistent judgment in the face of framing and other formal manipulations of the presentation of problems.† In their research paper entitled, â€Å"Heuristics and Biases in Thinking About Tax†, they have suggested that citizens especially in the United States suffer from a wide range of biases in the understanding of the basic features of the tax-law design and reform, like the perceptual biases more studied in the domain of the private markets, like the evaluation of â€Å"risky choice† and consumer finances. The main goal of the paper was to show that in evaluating the tax systems present in the country, citizens are vulnerable and exhibit a wide range of Heuristics and biases, which lead to inconsistent judgment and evaluation. Prevalence of these biases show that there is indeed room for â€Å"skillful† politicians and facile political systems to â€Å"manipulate public opinion, and that tax system design will reflect a certain volatility on account of the possibility of eliciting preference reversals through purely formal rhetorical means. † Due to the inconsistencies and biases of Heuristics, decision theorists have studied this phenomenon more closely. It turned into a respected field, founded by of Kahneman and Tversky, commonly known as â€Å"Heuristics and biases.† Heuristics may work well in problem solving, but can also turn to harmful biases. A few examples of heuristics and biases include Framing, which means viewing a need in the real world as a â€Å"problem† you can work on solving and the counterpart bias is mistaking your view of the problem for the real need. Status quo, a heuristic that implies â€Å"Business as Usual† or â€Å"If it ain’t broke don’t fix it† may incur bias against anything new. Cognitive overconfidence is the same as decisiveness and refusal to be haunted by doubt which may lead to the bias of self-delusion. The Heuristic Prudent Estimation means â€Å"conservative estimates† which may lead to missed opportunities which are especially dangerous in group problem solving. Most likely scenario has the Heuristic explanation of avoiding wasting time on possibilities that probably won’t happen, but the bias is rare events can be the most important. Guessing at patterns implies quickly spotting the trend or the big picture, with a corresponding bias of â€Å"Outguessing randomness† and seeing patterns that doesn’t exist. The last example Recall ability or Availability which implies, if an idea doesn’t fit in with the obvious data, it’s surely suspect. The corresponding bias for this is, non-obvious things can be most important or even most common. These examples of Heuristics are common in everyday life, and these rules of thumb do help in assessing situations such as deals in business, economics, or day to day domestic problems. It is common knowledge that these Heuristics can fail predictably, which are also known as â€Å"hidden traps† when a person succumbs to the counterpart bias. It is already a given that Heuristics bring about inconsistencies and biases, but there are some methods of control. For example, for the Heuristic Framing, advice is to not automatically accept initial framing, strive for objective neutral framing, and challenge other people’s framings. These are remedies to biased formed Heuristics, which will generally help in problem solving, whichever stage of the problem the person is at.

Organizational Development and Leadership Program Essay -- theory of ch

The journey of Gestalt consulting proved to be very insightful and enlightening. I initially worried that I would not be able to apply the Gestalt style of learning to my professional repertoire within organizational development (OD). However, the outcome was the exact opposite and Gestalt has truly been a useful OD tool acquired. What astounded me most was the chemistry and relevance to the skill that I was motivated to strengthen the most which is use of self. Concepts such as the paradoxical theory of change, cycle of experience, developing themes and polarities, and the unit of work all incorporate the use of self as a sufficient way of paying attention to and selectively sharing observations about what is happening in another person, a group, and an organization. Additionally these concepts were used to illuminate the path through resistance. According to Carlson and Sklarew (1995), â€Å"work is grounded in a whole system and multiple levels of system perspective, paradoxical theory of change, and an appreciation for the power of phenomenological experience.† (p. 3). During the class sessions we were introduced to the levels of system perspective. These include: intrapersonal, interpersonal, dyad or triad, and group level. These levels are defined by their boundaries. For example, the boundary in an interpersonal system is an individual exchanging with another individual and it is essential to note the exchange between the two. In my first case study I was able to illustrate the level of the system I observed which was an interpersonal system between me and my colleague, Angelo Martez. A boundary existed between he and I and communication was proven to be essential to make the exchange. Carlson and Sklarew (1995) also state that... ...tion itself. The most significant observation of gestalt consulting to me is that the process allows and requires both sides of the brain to be used. Observations can be intellectually made and interpreted, however those observations can be furthermore illustrated creatively to provide a visualize representation. Perhaps there can be a polarity framed in reference to my learning journey through gestalt: â€Å"I observe that through my learning I was able to combine intellect with creativity just as two irrelevant colors can combine to introduce a beautiful new color. Works Cited Nevis, E. C. (1987). Organizational Consulting: A Gestalt Approach. New York, NY: Gardner Press Sklarew, N. & Carlson. (1995). ODL 530G: Gestalt Consulting Skills. [Class handout]. Organizational Development and Leadership Program, Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine. Georgia, USA.

Model and Incidence Reduction Formula

Today, we have many youth that have decided to come out of the closet, and have been shunned by their families and peers. Many have turned to alcohol and drugs to cope with their feelings of rejection. On the other hand, many of our youth indulge in risky sexual behaviors that put them at a great risk for sexuality transmitted diseases and even suicide ideation. Community Needs The proposed prevention program will address discrimination projected at youth's who identify with being gay or lesbian in their communities.When discrimination occurs in the community, it produces stress, physical and psychological issues. Lewis, Delegated, Clarke, & Kiang (2006) article addressed how discrimination of on?s sexual identity is categorization toward their social status. Discrimination of gay or lesbian youth can also produce substance use problems, suicidal acts, violent factorization along with risky sexual behaviors that put them at risk for HIVE infection, and significant rates of school dro pout (Kernighan, Sheathes, & Abacus, 2014).In communities, there are five factors that prohibit resilience within the lesbian or gay youth. Russell, Bona, Macaroon, & Smith (201 1) stated that the Sebastian or gay youth often experience homophobia, divisions' within their own communities; inability to make sense of danger; family failure of support for sexual identity; and their internalizing of negative information about lesbian or gay youth intentions on society as a whole. Many youth are therefore left feeling alone and unaccepted by their communities in which they live in.Desired Results Outputs: The overall achievement for participating in the program â€Å"Yes I Can† will be the following components. 1 . Parental/caretaker acceptance Of youth's sexual orientation. 2. Stability of emotional, physical and psychological health. . Cessation of risky sexual and addictive behaviors. 4. Parental/caretaker active participation in therapy. 5. Production of positive relationships in families, peers, and school. 6. Ability to relinquish prior offenses that caused tremendous psychological and emotional pain, 7. Ability to live a life free from shame and guilt.Impacts The expected goals of the program ‘Yes Can† will seek to foster self- acceptance of the youth's sexual identity, promote positive self-image; emotional and psychological stability; acknowledgement of guilt producing behaviors that affect cognitive abilities while wanting to achieve positive hanged. Influential Factors The program will utilize three modalities that have been shown to provide significant reduction capabilities for the lesbian or gay youth. Cognitive behavioral therapy postulates cessation of negative behavior and substance usage.The triangular theory of love will explain the concept of what love is, while forgiveness therapy will help the youth to understand how forgiveness can benefit them emotionally, spiritually, and psychologically once they make the conscious choic e to forgive individuals who have wronged them. Parents and caretakers can empower their children to be who they are by encouraging them attend school regardless of what others say or do as long as they are not harmed. Strategies The following strategies will be utilized in the prevention program â€Å"Yes I Can†. 1.Community leaders and organizations to provide stringent policies for anti-gay harassment and violence in the schools. 2. Encouragement from parent/caretaker, community leaders and organizations. 3. Encouragement to stay in school. 4. Therapist/counselor understands how biases can damage the therapeutic relationship. 5. Utilization of competent providers in the assessment and counseling sectors. 6. Cultural competence. . Ethical guidelines adherence. 8. Journaling by participant's of their needs and Concerns. 9. Assess the prospect of suicide ideation through the Beck Scale. 10. Random drug screenings. 11.Explain the informed consent. 12. Obtain an active measurem ent of confidence by using the self-efficacy scale. Assumptions The prevention program goals will be to empower the youths toward self- acceptance, positive self-worth, freedom from their negative past experiences; production of positive coping mechanisms; understanding of the risk of substance abuse on their health. The program will utilize donated reverie for assessments and counseling services. Referrals will be made to area hospitals with the recommendation for evaluation of the participant in a crisis stabilization unit for suicide ideation.Incidence Reduction Formula Incidence Reduction= Decrease: Maladaptive coping, stress reduction, depression, risky sexual of anger from prior offenses, shame Guilt. Behaviors, alleviation Increase: Acceptance of sexual identity, parental/caretaker Communication, self-esteem, self-worth. Logic Model Resources Activities Outputs Short & Long Terms Outcomes Staff Trained in forgiveness therapy. Provide understanding of love for self. Trained st aff in cognitive behavioral therapy. Participant's secured from area schools, churches, & parental referrals.Community agency referrals. Parental/caretaker participation Group therapy sessions. Workbooks on discriminatory practices. Journals to write own thoughts & feelings to be addressed in therapy Drug testing Parental/caretaker involvement. Parental/caretaker acceptance of youth's sexual orientation. Developed positive self-esteem. Substance abuse alleviated. Positive support from selected peers/family Of choice. Alleviate depression & suicidal ideation. Positive cognitive and decision making skills. Positive attitude toward school and peers.Positive parental/caretaker relationships sustained. Develop and utilize voice against discrimination. Positive identity. Ability to function daily without drugs and alcohol. Healthy attitude toward life. Ability to develop and maintain healthy relationships. Ability to encourage others of the lesbian and gay community. Formative The program will use the concept of targeted mediator validation which recommends researchers to select social, psychological, and demographic variables that would be used in mediating and moderating such variables for he intervention.There will be three modalities used to advance and achieve the allocated intervention procedures. Attention will be focused on logged parental/caretaker and community participations. Relationship qualities will be viewed to assess whether they are conducive for the participant's. Conformity will be completed between the influences on the participants willingness to change negative behaviors that have caused them harm. Us m native The program â€Å"Yes I Can† was designed to empower the lesbian and gay youth in communities to change damaging behaviors that have stagnated heir joy in life from discrimination.

How Time Flies

Non-governmental organization From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search â€Å"NGO† redirects here. For other uses, see NGO (disambiguation). | This article may need to be rewritten entirely to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards. You can help. The discussion page may contain suggestions. (January 2012) | A non-governmental organization (NGO) is a legally constituted organization created by natural or legal persons that operates independently from any form of government.The term originated from the United Nations (UN), and is normally used to refer to organizations that are not a part of the government and are not conventional for-profit business. In the cases in which NGOs are funded totally or partially by governments, the NGO maintains its non-governmental status by excluding government representatives from membership in the organization. The term is usually applied only to organizations that pursue wider social aims that have political aspects, but are not openly political organizations such as political parties. The number of NGOs operating in the United States is estimated at 40,000. 1] International numbers are even higher: Russia has 277,000 NGOs;[2] India is estimated to have around 3. 3 million NGOs in year 2009, which is just over one NGO per 400 Indians, and many times the number of primary schools and primary health centres in India. [3][4] Contents * 1 Definition * 2 Types * 2. 1 Development, Environment and Human Rights NGOs * 2. 2 Track II Diplomacy * 3 Activities * 3. 1 Operational * 3. 2 Campaigning * 3. 3 Both * 3. 4 Public relations * 3. 5 Project management * 4 Corporate structure * 4. 1 Staffing * 4. Funding * 4. 3 Overhead costs * 4. 4 Monitoring and control * 5 History * 6 Legal status * 7 Critiques * 7. 1 Challenges to legitimacy * 8 See also * 9 References * 10 Further reading * 11 External links| Definition NGOs are difficult to define and classify, and the term ‘NGO' is not used consistently. As a result, there are many different classifications in use. The most common use a framework that includes orientation and level of operation. An NGO's orientation refers to the type of activities it takes on. These activities might include human rights, environmental, or evelopment work. An NGO's level of operation indicates the scale at which an organization works, such as local, international or national. â€Å"Confronting the Classification Problem: Toward a Taxonomy of NGOs† One of the earliest mentions of the acronym â€Å"NGO† was in 1945, when the UN was created. The UN, which is an inter-governmental organization, made it possible for certain approved specialized international non-state agencies – or non-governmental organisations – to be awarded observer status at its assemblies and some of its meetings. Later the term became used more widely.Today, according to the UN, any kind of private organization that is independent from government contr ol can be termed an â€Å"NGO†, provided it is not-profit, non-criminal and not simply an opposition political party. Professor Peter Willetts, from the University of London, argues the definition of NGOs can be interpreted differently by various organizations and depending on a situation’s context. He defines an NGO as â€Å"†an independent voluntary association of people acting together on a continuous basis for some common purpose other than achieving government office, making money or illegal activities. [5] In this view, two main types of NGOs are recognized according to the activities they pursue: operational NGOs that deliver services and campaigning NGOs. Although Willetts proposes the operational and campaigning NGOs as a tool to differentiate the main activities of these organizations, he also explains that a single NGO may often be engaged in both activities. Many NGOs also see them as mutually reinforcing. Professor Akira Iriye defines NGO as â€Å" a voluntary nonstate, nonprofit, nonreligious, and nonmilitary association. â€Å"[6] Types Some find it helpful to classify NGOs by orientation and/ Professional association * Empowering orientation; NGO type by level of co-operation * Community-based organization * City-wide organization * National NGO * International NGO Apart from â€Å"NGO†, there are many alternative or overlapping terms in use, including: third sector organization (TSO), non-profit organization (NPO), voluntary organization (VO), civil society organization (CSO), grassroots organization (GO), social movement organization (SMO), private voluntary organization (PVO), self-help organization (SHO) and non-state actors (NSAs).Non-governmental organizations are a heterogeneous group. As a result, a long (and sometimes confusing or comical) list of additional acronyms has developed, including: * BINGO, short for ‘business-friendly international NGO' or ‘big international NGO' * TANGO, ‘tech nical assistance NGO' * TSO, ‘third sector organization' * GONGO, ‘government-operated NGOs' (set up by governments to look like NGOs in order to qualify for outside aid or promote the interests of government) * DONGO: Donor Organized NGO INGO stands for international NGO; Oxfam, INSPAD,[7] Institute of Peace and Development â€Å"A European Think Tank For Peace Initiatives†; * QUANGOs are quasi-autonomous non-governmental organizations, such as the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). (The ISO is actually not purely an NGO, since its membership is by nation, and each nation is represented by what the ISO Council determines to be the ‘most broadly representative' standardization body of a nation.That body might itself be a nongovernmental organization; for example, the United States is represented in ISO by the American National Standards Institute, which is independent of the federal government. However, other countries can be represented b y national governmental agencies; this is the trend in Europe. ) * National NGO: A non-governmental organization that exists only in one country. This term is rare due to the globalization of non-governmental organizations, which causes an NGO to exist in more than one country. [5] * CSO, short for civil society organization ENGO: short for environmental NGO, such as Greenpeace and WWF * NNGO, short for ‘Northern nongovernmental organization' * SNGO, short for ‘Southern nongovernmental organization' * SCO, also known as ‘social change organizations' * TNGO, transnational NGO; The term emerged during the 1970s due to the increase of environmental and economic issues in the global community. TNGO includes non-governmental organizations that are not confined to only one country, but exist in two or more countries. * GSO: Grassroots Support Organization * MANGO: short for market advocacy NGO NGDO: non-governmental development organization USAID refers to NGOs as privat e voluntary organizations. However, many scholars have argued that this definition is highly problematic as many NGOs are in fact state and corporate funded and managed projects with professional staff. [citation needed] NGOs exist for a variety of reasons, usually to further the political or social goals of their members or funders. Examples include improving the state of the natural environment, encouraging the observance of human rights, improving the welfare of the disadvantaged, or representing a corporate agenda.However, there are a huge number of such organizations and their goals cover a broad range of political and philosophical positions. This can also easily be applied to private schools and athletic organizations. Development, Environment and Human Rights NGOs NGOs are organizations that work in many different fields, but the term is generally associated with those seeking social transformation and improvements in quality of life. Development NGOs is the most highly visi ble sector, and includes both international and local organizations, as well as those working in humanitarian emergency sector.Many are associated with international aid and voluntary donation, but there are also NGOs that choose not to take funds from donors and try to generate funding in other ways, such as selling handicrafts or charging for services. Environmental NGOs are another sub-sector, and sometimes overlap with development NGOs. An example is Greenpeace. (see: List of Environmental NGOs). Just like other NGOs networks, transnational environmental networks might acquire a variety of benefits in sharing information with other organizations, campaigning towards an issue, and exchanging contact information.Since Transnational environmental NGOs advocate for different issues like public goods, such as pollution in the air, deforestation of areas and water issues, it is more difficult for them to give their campaigns a human face than NGOs campaigning directly for human rights issues. Some of the earliest forms of transnational environmental NGOs started to appear after the Second World War with the creation of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN).After the UN was formed in 1945, more environmental NGO started to emerge in order to address more specific environmental issues. In 1946, the UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) was created with the purpose of advocating and representing scientific issues and collaboration among environmental NGOs. In 1969, the Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE) was funded to increase and improve collaboration among environmentalists. This collaboration was later reinforced and stimulated with the creation of UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere Program in 1971.In 1972, the UN Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm, tried to address the issues on Sweden’s plead for international intervention on trans-boundary pollution from other European industrialized nations. Transnational environmental NGOs have taken on diverse issues around the globe, but one of the best-known cases involving the work of environmental NGO’s can be traced back to Brazil during the 1980s. The United States got involved with deforestation concerns due to the allegations of environmentalists dictating deforestation to be a global concern, and after 1977 the U.S. Foreign Assistance Act added an Environmental and Natural Resources section. Human rights NGOs may also overlap with those in development, but are another distinct category. Amnesty International is perhaps one of the best-known. During the early 1980s the Brazilian government created the Polonoreste developing program, which the World Bank agreed to finance. The Polonoreste program aimed to urbanized areas of the Amazon, which were already occupied by local indigenous groups.Rapid deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon called the attention and intervention of UNE SCO, who utilized its Program on Man and the Biosphere to advocate against the Polonoreste program, on the grounds of violating the rights of the indigenous groups living in the Amazon. In the case of deforestation of the Brazilian Amazon, the environment NGOs were able to put pressure on the World Bank to cancel the loans for the Polonoreste program. Due to the leverage that the U. S. has over the bank, in 1985 the World Bank suspended the financial aid to the Polonoreste Program.The work of environmental NGOs in the Brazilian case was successful because there was a point of leverage that made the targeted actor vulnerable to international pressure. [8] Even though NGOs might have common goals relating to development or environment issues, interests and perspectives are diverse. A distinction can be made between the interests and goals among those NGOs located in industrialized countries—often referred to as the states of the North—and NGOs from nations located in dev eloping countries—referred to as states of the South.There is sometimes tension between them. Southern states blame the developed nations for over-consumption and pollution resulting from industrialization, and for sustaining inequalities in the international economic system There is also a distinction among groups that take on particular and specific socio-economic issues. The Women’s Environment and Development Organization was created in 1990 with the purpose to advocate for gender inclusion in work related to the Earth Summit.Other groups might focus on issues that include racial minorities and individuals from lower income backgrounds. [9] Track II Diplomacy Main article: Track II diplomacy Track II dialogue, or Track II diplomacy, is a transnational coordination that involves non-official members of the government including epistemic communities as well as former policy-makers or analysts. Track II diplomacy aims to get policymakers and policy analysts to come to a common solution through discussions by unofficial figures of the government.Unlike the Track I diplomacy where government officials, diplomats and elected leaders gather to talk about certain issues, Track II diplomacy consists of experts, scientists, professors and other figures that are not involved in government affairs. The members of Track II diplomacy usually have more freedom to exchange ideas and come up with compromise on their own. Activities There are also numerous classifications of NGOs. The typology the World Bank uses divides them into Operational and Advocacy:[10] NGOs vary in their methods.Some act primarily as lobbyists, while others primarily conduct programs and activities. For instance, an NGO such as Oxfam, concerned with poverty alleviation, might provide needy people with the equipment and skills to find food and clean drinking water, whereas an NGO like the FFDA helps through investigation and documentation of human rights violations and provides legal as sistance to victims of human rights abuses. Others, such as Afghanistan Information Management Services, provide specialized technical products and services to support development activities implemented on the ground by other organizations.NGOs were intended to fill a gap in government services, but in countries like India, NGOs are gaining a powerful stronghold in decision making. In the interest of sustainability, most donors require that NGOs demonstrate a relationship with governments. State Governments themselves are vulnerable because they lack strategic planning and vision. They are therefore sometimes tightly bound by a nexus of NGOs, political bodies, commercial organizations and major donors/funders, making decisions that have short term outputs but no long term affect.NGOs in India are under regulated, political, and recipients of large government and international donor funds. NGOs often take up responsibilities outside their skill ambit. Governments have no access to th e number of projects or amount of funding received by these NGOs. There is a pressing need to regulate this group while not curtailing their unique role as a supplement to government services. Operational Operational NGOs seek to â€Å"achieve small scale change directly through projects. â€Å"[5] They mobilize financial resources, materials and volunteers to create localized programs in the field.They hold large scale fundraising events, apply to governments and organizations for grants and contracts in order to raise money for projects. They often operate in a hierarchical structure; with a main headquarters staffed by professionals who plan projects, create budgets, keep accounts, report, and communicate with operational fieldworkers who work directly on projects[5] Operational NGOs deal with a wide range of issues, but are most often associated with the delivery of services and welfare, emergency relief and environmental issues.Operational NGOs can be further categorized, one frequently used categorization is the division into relief-oriented versus development-oriented organizations; they can also be classified according to whether they stress service delivery or participation; or whether they are religious or secular; and whether they are more public or private-oriented. Operational NGOs can be community-based, national or international. The defining activity of operational NGOs is implementing projects. [5] Campaigning Campaigning NGOs seek to â€Å"achieve large scale change promoted indirectly through influence of the political system. [5] Campaigning NGOs need an efficient and effective group of professional members who are able to keep supporters informed, and motivated. They must plan and host demonstrations and events that will keep their cause in the media. They must maintain a large informed network of supporters who can be mobilized for events to garner media attention and influence policy changes. The defining activity of campaigning NGOs is holding demonstrations. [5] Campaigning NGOs often deal with issues relating to human rights, women's rights, children's rights. The primary purpose of an Advocacy NGO is to defend or promote a specific cause.As opposed to operational project management, these organizations typically try to raise awareness, acceptance and knowledge by lobbying, press work and activist event. Both It is not uncommon for NGOs to make use of both activities. Many times, operational NGOs will use campaigning techniques if they continually face the same issues in the field that could be remedied through policy changes. At the same time, Campaigning NGOs, like human rights organizations often have programs that assist the individual victims they are trying to help through their advocacy work. [5] Public relationsNon-governmental organizations need healthy relationships with the public to meet their goals. Foundations and charities use sophisticated public relations campaigns to raise funds and employ s tandard lobbying techniques with governments. Interest groups may be of political importance because of their ability to influence social and political outcomes. A code of ethics was established in 2002 by The World Association of Non Governmental NGOs. Project management There is an increasing awareness that management techniques are crucial to project success in non-governmental organizations. 11] Generally, non-governmental organizations that are private have either a community or environmental focus. They address varieties of issues such as religion, emergency aid, or humanitarian affairs. They mobilize public support and voluntary contributions for aid; they often have strong links with community groups in developing countries, and they often work in areas where government-to-government aid is not possible. NGOs are accepted as a part of the international relations landscape, and while they influence national and multilateral policy-making, increasingly they are more directly i nvolved in local action. Corporate structureStaffing Some NGOs are highly professionalized and rely mainly on paid staff. Others are based around voluntary labour and are less formalized. Not all people working for non-governmental organizations are volunteers. Many NGOs are associated with the use of international staff working in ‘developing' countries, but there are many NGOs in both North and South who rely on local employees or volunteers. There is some dispute as to whether expatriates should be sent to developing countries. Frequently this type of personnel is employed to satisfy a donor who wants to see the supported project managed by someone from an industrialized country.However, the expertise these employees or volunteers may be counterbalanced by a number of factors: the cost of foreigners is typically higher, they have no grassroot connections in the country they are sent to, and local expertise is often undervalued. [10] The NGO sector is an important employer i n terms of numbers. [citation needed] For example, by the end of 1995, CONCERN worldwide, an international Northern NGO working against poverty, employed 174 expatriates and just over 5,000 national staff working in ten developing countries in Africa and Asia, and in Haiti. FundingWhether the NGOs are small or large, various NGOs need budgets to operate. The amount of budget that they need would differ from NGOs to NGOs. Unlike small NGOs, large NGOs may have annual budgets in the hundreds of millions or billions of dollars. For instance, the budget of the American Association of Retired Persons (AARP) was over US$540 million in 1999. [12] Funding such large budgets demands significant fundraising efforts on the part of most NGOs. Major sources of NGO funding are membership dues, the sale of goods and services, grants from international institutions or national governments, and private donations.Several EU-grants provide funds accessible to NGOs. Even though the term â€Å"non-gove rnmental organization† implies independence from governments, many NGOs depend heavily on governments for their funding. [13] A quarter of the US$162 million income in 1998 of the famine-relief organization Oxfam was donated by the British government and the EU. The Christian relief and development organization World Vision United States collected US$55 million worth of goods in 1998 from the American government.Nobel Prize winner Medecins Sans Frontieres (MSF) (known in the USA as Doctors Without Borders) gets 46% of its income from government sources. [14] Government funding of NGOs is controversial, since, according to David Rieff, writing in The New Republic, â€Å"the whole point of humanitarian intervention was precisely that NGOs and civil society had both a right and an obligation to respond with acts of aid and solidarity to people in need or being subjected to repression or want by the forces that controlled them, whatever the governments concerned might think about the matter. [15] Some NGOs, such as Greenpeace do not accept funding from governments or intergovernmental organizations. [16][17] Overhead costs Overhead is the amount of money that is spent on running an NGO rather than on projects. [18] This includes office expenses,[18] salaries, banking and bookkeeping costs. What percentage of overall budget is spent on overhead is often used to judge an NGO with less than 10% being viewed as good. [18] The World Association of Non-Governmental Organizations states that ideally more than 80% should be spent on programs (less than 20% on overhead). 19] The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria has specific guidelines on how high overhead can be to receive funding based on how the money is to be spent with overhead often needing to be less than 5-7%. [20] While the World Bank typically allows 10%. [21] A high percentage of overhead to total expenditures can make it more difficult to generate funds. [22] High overhead costs may als o generate criticism with some claiming the certain NGOs with high overhead are being run simply to benefit the people working for them. [23] Monitoring and control In a March 2000 report on United Nations Reform priorities, former U.N. Secretary General Kofi Annan wrote in favor of international humanitarian intervention, arguing that the international community has a â€Å"right to protect†[24] citizens of the world against ethnic cleansing, genocide, and crimes against humanity. On the heels of the report, the Canadian government launched the Responsibility to Protect R2P[25] project, outlining the issue of humanitarian intervention. While the R2P doctrine has wide applications, among the more controversial has been the Canadian government's use of R2P to justify its intervention and support of the coup in Haiti. 26] Years after R2P, the World Federalist Movement, an organization which supports â€Å"the creation of democratic global structures accountable to the citizens of the world and call for the division of international authority among separate agencies†, has launched Responsibility to Protect – Engaging Civil Society (R2PCS). A collaboration between the WFM and the Canadian government, this project aims to bring NGOs into lockstep with the principles outlined under the original R2P project.The governments of the countries an NGO works or is registered in may require reporting or other monitoring and oversight. Funders generally require reporting and assessment, such information is not necessarily publicly available. There may also be associations and watchdog organizations that research and publish details on the actions of NGOs working in particular geographic or program areas. [citation needed] In recent years, many large corporations have increased their corporate social responsibility departments in an attempt to preempt NGO campaigns against certain corporate practices.As the logic goes, if corporations work with NGOs, NGOs will not work against corporations. In December 2007, The United States Department of Defense Assistant Secretary of Defense (Health Affairs) S. Ward Casscells established an International Health Division under Force Health Protection & Readiness. [27] Part of International Health's mission is to communicate with NGOs in areas of mutual interest. Department of Defense Directive 3000. 05,[28] in 2005, requires DoD to regard stability-enhancing activities as a mission of importance equal to combat.In compliance with international law, DoD has necessarily built a capacity to improve essential services in areas of conflict such as Iraq, where the customary lead agencies (State Department and USAID) find it difficult to operate. Unlike the â€Å"co-option† strategy described for corporations, the OASD(HA) recognizes the neutrality of health as an essential service. International Health cultivates collaborative relationships with NGOs, albeit at arms-length, recognizing their trad itional independence, expertise and honest broker status.While the goals of DoD and NGOs may seem incongruent, the DoD's emphasis on stability and security to reduce and prevent conflict suggests, on careful analysis, important mutual interests. History International non-governmental organizations have a history dating back to at least 1839. [29] It has been estimated that by 1914, there were 1083 NGOs. [30] International NGOs were important in the anti-slavery movement and the movement for women's suffrage, and reached a peak at the time of the World Disarmament Conference. 31] However, the phrase â€Å"non-governmental organization† only came into popular use with the establishment of the United Nations Organization in 1945 with provisions in Article 71 of Chapter 10 of the United Nations Charter[32] for a consultative role for organizations which are neither governments nor member states—see Consultative Status. The definition of â€Å"international NGO† (ING O) is first given in resolution 288 (X) of ECOSOC on February 27, 1950: it is defined as â€Å"any international organization that is not founded by an international treaty†.The vital role of NGOs and other â€Å"major groups† in sustainable development was recognized in Chapter 27[33] of Agenda 21, leading to intense arrangements for a consultative relationship between the United Nations and non-governmental organizations. [34] It has been observed that the number of INGO founded or dissolved matches the general â€Å"state of the world†, rising in periods of growth and declining in periods of crisis. [35] Rapid development of the non-governmental sector occurred in western countries as a result of the processes of restructuring of the welfare state.Further globalization of that process occurred after the fall of the communist system and was an important part of the Washington consensus. [13] Globalization during the 20th century gave rise to the importance of NGOs. Many problems could not be solved within a nation. International treaties and international organizations such as the World Trade Organization were centred mainly on the interests of capitalist enterprises. In an attempt to counterbalance this trend, NGOs have developed to emphasize humanitarian issues, developmental aid and sustainable development.A prominent example of this is the World Social Forum, which is a rival convention to the World Economic Forum held annually in January in Davos, Switzerland. The fifth World Social Forum in Porto Alegre, Brazil, in January 2005 was attended by representatives from more than 1,000 NGOs. [36] In terms of environmental issues and sustainable development, the Earth Summit in Rio in 1992 was the first to show the power of international NGOs, when about 2,400 representatives of NGOs came to play a central role in deliberations.Some have argued that in forums like these, NGOs take the place of what should belong to popular movements of th e poor. Whatever the case, NGO transnational networking is now extensive. [37] Legal status The legal form of NGOs is diverse and depends upon homegrown variations in each country's laws and practices. However, four main family groups of NGOs can be found worldwide:[38] * Unincorporated and voluntary association * Trusts, charities and foundations * Companies not just for profit Entities formed or registered under special NGO or nonprofit laws The Council of Europe in Strasbourg drafted the European Convention on the Recognition of the Legal Personality of International Non-Governmental Organizations in 1986, which sets a common legal basis for the existence and work of NGOs in Europe. Article 11 of the European Convention on Human Rights protects the right to freedom of association, which is also a fundamental norm for NGOs. Critiques Stuart Becker provides the following summary of the primary critiques of NGOs: There’s a debate that, NGOs take the place of what should belon g to popular movements of the poor.Others argue that NGOs are often imperialist in nature, that they sometimes operate in a racist manner in Third World countries and that they fulfill a similar function to that of the clergy during the colonial era. Philosopher Peter Hallward argues that they are an aristocratic form of politics. â€Å"[39] Issa G. Shivji is one of Africa's leading experts on law and development issues as an author and academic. His critique on NGOs is found in two essays: â€Å"Silences in NGO discourse: The role and future of NGOs in Africa† and â€Å"Reflections on NGOs in Tanzania: What we are, what we are not and what we ought to be†.Shivji argues that despite the good intentions of NGO leaders and activists, he is critical of the â€Å"objective effects of actions, regardless of their intentions†. [40] Shivji argues also that the sudden rise of NGOs are part of a neoliberal paradigm rather than pure altruistic motivations. He is critical of the current manifestations of NGOs wanting to change the world without understanding it, and that the imperial relationship continues today with the rise of NGOs. James Pfeiffer, in his case study of NGO involvement in Mozambique, speaks to the negative effects that NGO's have had on areas of health within the country.He argues that over the last decade, NGO's in Mozambique have â€Å"fragmented the local health system, undermined local control of health programs, and contributed to growing local social inequality† [41] He notes further that NGO's can be uncoordinated, creating parallel projects among different organizations, that pull health service workers away from their routine duties in order to serve the interests of the NGO's. This ultimately undermines local primary health care efforts, and takes away the governments ability to maintain agency over their own health sector. 42] J. Pfeiffer suggested a new model of collaboration between the NGO and the DPS (the Moza mbique Provincial Health Directorate). He mentioned the NGO should be ‘formally held to standard and adherence within the host country', for example reduce ‘showcase' projects and parallel programs that proves to be unsustainable. [43] Jessica Mathews once wrote in Foreign Affairs in 1997: â€Å"For all their strengths, NGOs are special interests. The best of them †¦ often suffer from tunnel vision, judging every public act by how it affects their particular interest†. 44] Since NGOs do have to worry about policy trade-offs, the overall impact of their cause might bring more harm to society. [45] Vijay Prashad argues that from the 1970s â€Å"The World Bank, under Robert McNamara, championed the NGO as an alternative to the state, leaving intact global and regional relations of power and production. â€Å"[46] Others argue that NGOs are often imperialist[47] in nature, that they sometimes operate in a racialized manner in third world countries, and that the y fulfill a similar function to that of the clergy during the high colonial era.The philosopher Peter Hallward argues that they are an aristocratic form of politics. [48] Popular movements in the global South such as, for instance, the Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign in South Africa have sometimes refused to work with NGOs arguing that this will compromise their autonomy. [49][50] Another criticism of NGOs is that they are being designed and used as extensions of the normal foreign-policy instruments of certain Western countries and groups of countries. 51] Russian President Vladimir Putin made this accusation at the 43rd Munich Conference on Security Policy in 2007, concluding that these NGOs â€Å"are formally independent but they are purposefully financed and therefore under control. â€Å"[52] Also, Michael Bond wrote â€Å"Most large NGOs, such as Oxfam, the Red Cross, Cafod and Action Aid, are striving to make their aid provision more sustainable. But some, mostly in th e US, are still exporting the ideologies of their backers. † [53] Indeed, whether the NGOs are adiding for evangelical purposes or their ideological intentions, various NGOs are examined and accused of their nature.There has also been the overwhelming disaster of NGOs using white lies or misinformed advise to enact their campaigns. In other words, NGOs have been quite ignorant about critical issues because, as chief scientist at Greenpeace Doug Parr claims, these organizations have lost their efforts in being trully scientific and are now more self-interested. Rather than operating through science so as to be rationally and effectively practical, NGOs are now abusing the utilization of science in order to gain their own advantages.In the beginning, as Parr indicated, there was â€Å"‘a tendency among our critics to say that science is the only decision-making tool . . . but political and commerical interests are using science as a cover for getting their way. ‘â⠂¬ [54] At the same time, NGOs have shown themselves not to be very cooperative with other groups, as the previous policy-maker for the German branch of Friends of the Earth Jens Katjek acknowledged. â€Å"If NGOs want the best for the environment, he says, they have to learn to compromise. â€Å"[55] Challenges to legitimacy The issue of the legitimacy of NGOs raises a series of important questions.This is one of the most important assets possessed by an NGO, it is gained through a perception that they are an â€Å"independent voice†. [56][57] Their representation also emerges as an important question. Who bestows responsibilities to NGOs or INGOs and how do they gain the representation of citizens and civil society is still not scrutinized thoroughly. For instance, in the article, it is stated, â€Å"To put the point starkly: are the citizens of countries of the South and their needs represented in global civil society, or are citizens as well as their needs constructed by practices of representation?And when we realize that INGOs hardly ever come face to face with the people whose interests and problems they represent, or that they are not accountable to the people they represent, matters become even more troublesome. † [58] Moreover, the legitimacy and the accountability of NGOs on the point of their true nature are also emerging as important issues. Various perceptions and images on NGOs are provided, and usually implemented in an image as ‘non-state actors' or ‘influential representatives of civil society that advocate the citizen. Accountability may be able to provide this and also be able to assist activities by providing focus and direction[59] As non-state actors with considerable influence over the governance in many areas, concerns have been expressed over the extent to which they represent the views of the public and the extent to which they allow the public to hold them to account. [60] The origin of funding can have serious implications for the legitimacy of NGOs. In recent decades NGOs have increased their numbers and range of activities to a level where they have become increasingly dependent on a limited number of donors. 60] Consequently competition has increased for funding, as have the expectations of the donors themselves. [61] This runs the risk of donors adding conditions which can threaten the independence of NGOs, an over-dependence on official aid has the potential to dilute â€Å"the willingness of NGOs to speak out on issues which are unpopular with governments†. [57] In these situations NGOs are being held accountable by their donors, which can erode rather than enhance their legitimacy, a difficult challenge to overcome. Some commentators have also argued that the changes in where NGOs receive their funding has ultimately altered their functions. 57] NGOs have also been challenged on the grounds that they do not necessarily represent the needs of the developing world, thr ough diminishing the so-called â€Å"Southern Voice†. Some postulate that the North-South division exists in the arena of NGOs. [62] They question the equality of the relationships between Northern and Southern parts of the same NGOs as well as the relationships between Southern and Northern NGOs working in partnerships. This suggests a division of labour may develop, with the North taking the lead in advocacy and resource mobilisation whilst the South engages in service delivery in the developing world. 62] The potential implications of this may mean that the needs of the developing world are not addressed appropriately as Northern NGOs do not properly consult or participate in partnerships. The real danger in this situation is that western views may take the front seat and assign unrepresentative priorities. [63] The flood of NGOs has also been accused of damaging the public sector in multiple developing countries. The mismanagement of NGOs has resulted in the break down of public health care systems.Instead of promoting equity and alleviating poverty, NGOs have been under scrutiny for contributing to socioeconomic inequality and disempowering the services in the public sector of third world countries. [64] The scale and variety of activities in which NGOs participate has grown rapidly since the 1980s, witnessing particular expansion in the 1990s. [65] This has presented NGOs with need to balance the pressures of centralisation and decentralisation. By centralising NGOs, particularly those that operate at an international level, they can assign a common theme or set of goals.Conversely it is also advantageous to decentralise as this increases the chances of an NGO behaving flexibly and effectively to localised issues. [66] See also * Charitable organization * Civil society * Community foundation * NGO-isation * Non-governmental organizations by country * Non-profit organization * Not just for profit * Occupational health and safety * Track II diplomac y References 1. ^ Anheier et al. , â€Å"Global Civil Society 2001†, 2001 2. ^ â€Å"Hobbled NGOs wary of Medvedev†. Chicago Tribune. May 7, 2008. 3. ^ â€Å"India: More NGOs, than schools and health centres†. OneWorld. net. July 7, 2010.Retrieved 2011-10-07. 4. ^ â€Å"First official estimate: An NGO for every 400 people in India†. The Indian Express. July 7, 2010. 5. ^ a b c d e f g h Willetts, Peter. â€Å"What is a Non-Governmental Organization? â€Å". UNESCO Encyclopaedia of Life Support Systems. City University London. Retrieved 18 July 2012. 6. ^ Iriye, Akira (2004). Global community  : the role of international organizations in the making of the contemporary world (1. paperback print. ed. ). Berkeley, Calif. [u. a. ]: Univ. of California Press. ISBN  9780520231283. 7. ^ inspad. org 8. ^ Keck and Sikkink. â€Å"Environmental Advocacy Networks†.Books. google. com. Retrieved 2011-12-20. 9. ^ McCormick, John. â€Å"The Role of Environme ntal NGOs in International Regimes†. Books. google. com. Retrieved 2011-12-20. 10. ^ a b World Bank Criteria defining NGO[dead link] 11. ^ 100   LSE. ac. uk, Mukasa, Sarah. Are expatriate staff necessary in international development NGOs? 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International NGOs and primary health care in Mozambique: the need for a new model of collaboration. Social Science & Medicine 56 (2003) 725-738 44. ^ Jessica T.Mathews (Jan. – Feb. , 1997). â€Å"Power Shift†. Foreign Affair s. Retrieved 2012-06-01. 45. ^ Bond, M. (2000) The Backlash against NGOs. Prospect (magazine). 46. ^ Mother Teresa: A Communist View, Vijay Prashad, Australian Marxist Review, No. 40 August 1998 47. ^ Abahlali baseMjondoloRethinking Public Participation from below, ‘Critical Dialogue', 2006 48. ^ See his Damming the Flood (Verso, London, 2007. ) 49. ^ Building unity in diversity: Social movement activism in the Western Cape Anti-Eviction Campaign, Sophie Oldfield & Kristian Stokke, 2004 50. Ashraf Cassiem: South African Resistance Against Evictions, Marlon Crump, Poor Magazine, 2009 51. ^ ‘NGO’: The Guise of Innocence, by Jenny O'Connor, New Left Project, 2012 52. ^ Putin, Vladimir (February 10, 2007). Speech and the Following Discussion at the Munich Conference on Security Policy (Speech). 43rd Munich Conference on Security Policy. Munich, Germany. Retrieved February 28, 2012. 53. ^ Bond, Michael. â€Å"The Backlash against NGOs. † Prospect, April 2000, pp . 321. Print 54. ^ Bond, Michael. â€Å"The Backlash against NGOs. † Prospect, April 2000, pp. 323. Print 55. Bond, Michael. â€Å"The Backlash against NGOs. † Prospect, April 200, pp. 323. Print 56. ^ Weber, N. and Christopherson, T. (2002) The influence of non-givernmental organisations on the creation of Natura 2000 during the European policy process. Forest policy and Economics. 4(1), pp. 1-12. 57. ^ a b c Edwards, M. and Hulme, D. (2002) NGO Performance and Accountability: Introduction and Overview. â€Å"In: Edwards, M. and Hulme, D. , ed. 2002. † The Earthscan Reader on NGO Management. UK: Earthscan Publications Ltd. Chapter 11. 58. ^ Neera Chandhoke. (2005) â€Å"How Global Is Global Civil Society? Journal of World-Systems Research, 11, 2, 2005, pp. 326-327. 59. ^ Edwards, M. and Hulme, D. (2002) Beyond the Magic Bullet? Lessons and Conclusions. â€Å"In: Edwards, M. and Hulme, D. , ed. 2002. † The Earthscan Reader on NGO Management. UK: Earthsca n Publications Ltd. Chapter 12. 60. ^ a b Edwards, M. and Hulme, D. (1996) Too Close for comfort? The impact of official aid on Non-Governmental Organisations. â€Å"World Development. † 24(6), pp. 961-973. 61. ^ Ebrahim, A. (2003) Accountability in practice: Mechanisms for NGOs. â€Å"World Development. † 31(5), pp. 813-829. 62. ^ a b Lindenberg, M. and Bryant, C. 2001) Going Global:Transforming Relief and Development NGOs. Bloomfield: Kumarian Press. 63. ^ Jenkins, R. (2001) Corporate Codes of Conduct: Self-Regulation in a Global Economy. â€Å"Technology, Business and Society Programme Paper Number 2. † United Nations Research Institute for Social Development. 64. ^ Pfeiffer, J. 2003. International NGOs and primary health care in Mozambique: the need for a new model of collaboration. Social Science ; Medicine 56(4):725-738. 65. ^ Avina, J. (1993) The Evolutionary Life Cycles if Non-Governmental Development Organisations. â€Å"Public Administration and Devel opment. † 13(5), pp. 53-474. 66. ^ Anheier, H. and Themudo, N. (2002) Organisational forms of global civil society: Implications of going global. In: Anheier, H. Glasius, M. Kaldor, M, ed 2002. Further reading * Mark Butler, with Thulani Ndlazi, David Ntseng, Graham Philpott, and Nomusa Sokhela. NGO Practice and the Possibility of Freedom Church Land Programme, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa 2007 Churchland. co. za[dead link] * Olivier Berthoud, NGOs: Somewhere between Compassion, Profitability and Solidarity Envio. org. ni, PDF Edinter. net Envio, Managua, 2001 * Terje Tvedt, 19982/2003: Angels of Mercy or Development Diplomats.NGOs ; Foreign Aid, Oxford: James Currey * Steve W. Witt, ed. Changing Roles of NGOs in the Creation, Storage, and Dissemination of Information in Developing Countries (Saur, 2006). ISBN 3-598-22030-8 * Cox, P. N. Shams, G. C. Jahn, P. Erickson and P. Hicks. 2002. Building collaboration between NGOs and agricultural research institutes. Cambodian Journ al of Agriculture 6: 1-8. IRRI. org[dead link] * Ann Florini, ed. The Third Force: The Rise of Transnational Civil Society (Carnegie Endowment for International Peace and Japan Center for International Exchange, 2001). Margaret Keck and Kathryn Sikkink. 1998. Activists Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics. Cornell University Press * Rodney Bruce Hall, and Biersteker, Thomas. The Emergence of Private Authority in Global Governance (Cambridge Studies in International Relations, 2003) * Dorthea Hilhorst, The Real World of NGOs: Discourses, Diversity and Development, Zed Books, 2003 * Joan Roelofs, Foundations and Public Policy: The Mask of Pluralism (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2003). Ian Smillie, ; Minear, Larry, editors. The Charity of Nations: Humanitarian Action in a Calculating World, Kumarian Press, 2004 * Simon Maxwell and Diane Stone. (eds) Global Knowledge Networks and International Development: Bridges Across Boundaries (Routledge, 2005: I-xix; 1-192). * Sidney Tarrow, The New Transnational Activism, New York  :Cambridge University Press, 2005 * Thomas Ward, editor. Development, Social Justice, and Civil Society: An Introduction to the Political Economy of NGOs, Paragon House, 2005 * H. Teegen, 2003. International NGOs as Global Institutions: Using Social Capital to Impact Multinational Enterprises and Governments’, Journal of International Management. * Jennifer Brinkerhoff, Stephen C. Smith, and Hildy Teegen, NGOs and the Millennium Development Goals: Citizen Action to Reduce Poverty, Palgrave Macmillan, 2007. * S. Goonatilake. Recolonisation: Foreign Funded NGO's in Sri Lanka, Sage Publications 2006. * Teegen, H. Doh, J. , Vachani, S. , 2004. â€Å"The importance of nongovernmental organisation in global governance and value creation: an international business research agendaâ€Å" in Journal of International Business Studies.Washington: Vol. 35, Iss. 6. * K. Rodman, (1998). â€Å"‘Think Global ly, Punish Locally: Nonstate Actors, Multinational Corporations, and Human Rights Sanctions† in Ethics in International Affairs, vol. 12. * Grant B. Stillman (2006), NGO Law and Governance: a resource book, ADB Institute, Tokyo, ISBN 4-89974-013-1. More useful are regional histories and analyses of the experience of NGOs. Specific works (although this is by no means an exhaustive list) include: * T. R. Davies, The Possibilities of Transnational Activism: The Campaign for Disarmament between the Two World Wars, Brill, 2007.ISBN 3-598-22030-8 * H. Englund, Prisoners of Freedom: Human Rights & the Africa Poor, University of California Press, 2006 * Carrie Meyer, The Economics and Politics of NGOs in Latin America, Praeger Publishers, July 30, 1999 * Chhandasi Pandya. 2006. Private Authority and Disaster Relief: The Cases of Post-Tsunami Aceh and Nias. Critical Asian Studies. Vol. 38, No. 2. Pg. 298-308. Routledge Press: Taylor & Francis Group * Maha Abdelrahman, Civil Society Exp osed: The Politics of NGOs in Egypt, The American University in Cairo Press, 2004.Al-Ahram Weekly has done a review of the book. * Sangeeta Kamat, Development hegemony: NGOs and The State in India, Delhi, New York; Oxford University Press, 2002 * Adama Sow, Chancen und Risiken von NGOs – Die Gewerkschaften in Guinea wahrend der Unruhen 2007 – EPU Research Papers: Issue 03/07, Stadtschlaining 2007 (German) * Lyal S. Sunga, â€Å"Dilemmas facing INGOs in coalition-occupied Iraq†, in Ethics in Action: The Ethical Challenges of International Human Rights Nongovernmental Organizations, edited by Daniel A. Bell and Jean-Marc Coicaud, Cambridge Univ. and United Nations Univ.Press, 2007. * Lyal S. Sunga, â€Å"NGO Involvement in International Human Rights Monitoring, International Human Rights Law and Non-Governmental Organizations† (2005) 41-69. * Werker & Ahmed (2008): What do Non-Governmental Organizations do? * Steve Charnovitz, â€Å"Two Centuries of Partic ipation: NGOs and International Governance,† Michigan Journal of International Law, Vol. 18, Winter 1997, at 183-286. * Abahlali baseMjondolo Rethinking Public Participation from Below, ‘Critical Dialogue', 2006 * Akpan S. M (2010): Establishment of Non-Governmental Organizations (In Press). Edward A. L. Turner (2010) Why Has the Number of International Non-Governmental Organizations Exploded since 1960? , Cliodynamics, 1, (1). Retrieved from: [3] * Eugene Fram & Vicki Brown, How Using the Corporate Model Makes a Nonprofit Board More Effective & Efficient – Third Edition (2011), Amazon Books, Create Space Books. The de facto reference resource for information and statistics on International NGOs (INGOs) and other transnational organisational forms is the Yearbook of International Organizations, produced by the Union of International Associations. David Lewis and Nazneen Kanji (2009): Non-Governmental Organizations and Development. New York: Routledge. * Issa G. Sh ivji (2007): Silence in NGO Discourse: The Role and Future of NGOs in Africa. Nairobi: Fahamu. * Jens Steffek and Kristina Hahn (2010): Evaluating Transnational NGOs: Legitimacy, Accountability, Representation. New York: Palgrave, Macmillan. External links * NGO Search: NGO/IGO google custom search engine built by the Govt Documents Round Table (GODORT) of the American Library Association. * Interface journal special issue on NGOs * A brief history of Non-Governmental Organizations Historical Database of International NGOs * Duke University NGO Library * Global Policy Forum: The site includes articles on a wide range of aspects of NGOs. * NGOs – Non-Governmental Organizations * What is a Non-Governmental Organization? 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Biography of Cambodia Politician Pol Pot

Biography of Cambodia Politician Pol Pot Pol Pot. The name is synonymous with horror. Even in the blood-drenched annals of twentieth-century history, Pol Pots Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia stands out for the sheer scale and senselessness of its atrocities. In the name of creating an agrarian communist revolution, Pol Pot and his underlings killed at least 1.5 million of their own people in the infamous Killing Fields. They wiped out between 1/4 and 1/5 of the countrys entire population. Who would do this to their own nation? What kind of monster kills millions in the name of erasing a century of modernization? Who was Pol Pot? Early Life A child named Saloth Sar was born in March of 1925, in the little fishing village of Prek Sbav, French Indochina. His family was ethnically mixed, Chinese and Khmer, and comfortably middle-class. They owned fifty acres of rice paddies, which was ten times as much as most of their neighbors, and a large house that stood on stilts in case the river flooded. Saloth Sar was the eighth of their nine children. Saloth Sars family had connections with the Cambodian royal family. His aunt had a post in the future King Norodoms household, and his first cousin Meak, as well as his sister Roeung, served as royal concubines. Saloth Sars elder brother Suong was also an officer at the palace. When Saloth Sar was ten years old, his family sent him 100 miles south to the capital city of Phnom Penh to attend the Ecole Miche, a French Catholic school. He was not a good student. Later, the boy transferred to a technical school in Kompong Cham, where he studied carpentry. His academic struggles during his youth would actually stand him in good stead for decades to come, given the Khmer Rouges anti-intellectual policies. French Technical College Probably because of his connections rather than his scholastic record, the government gave him the scholarship to travel to Paris, and pursue higher education in the field of electronics and radio technology at the Ecole Francaise dElectronique et dInformatique (EFRIE). Saloth Sar was in France from 1949 to 1953; he spent most of his time learning about Communism rather than electronics. Inspired by Ho Chi Minhs declaration of Vietnamese independence from France, Saloth joined the Marxist Circle, which dominated the Khmer Students Association in Paris. He also joined the French Communist Party (PCF), which lionized the uneducated rural peasantry as the true proletariat, in opposition to Karl Marxs designation of the urban factory-workers as the proletariat. Return to Cambodia Saloth Sar flunked out of college in 1953. Upon his return to Cambodia, he scouted out the various anti-government rebel groups for the PCF and reported that the Khmer Viet Minh was the most effective. Cambodia became independent in 1954 along with Vietnam and Laos, as part of the Geneva Agreement which France used to extract itself from the Vietnam War. Prince Sihanouk played the different political parties in Cambodia off against one another and fixed elections; nonetheless, the leftist opposition was too weak to seriously challenge him either at the ballot box or through a guerrilla war. Saloth Sar became a go-between for the officially recognized left-wing parties and the communist underground. On July 14, 1956, Saloth Sar married teacher Khieu Ponnary. Somewhat incredibly, he got work as a lecturer in French history and literature at a college called Chamraon Vichea. By all reports, his students loved the soft-spoken and friendly teacher. He would soon move up within the communist sphere, as well. Pol Pot Assumes Control of Communists Throughout 1962, the Cambodian government cracked down on communist and other left-wing parties. It arrested party members, shut down their newspapers, and even killed important communist leaders while they were in custody. As a result, Saloth Sar moved up the ranks of surviving party members. In early 1963, a small group of survivors elected Saloth as Secretary of the Communist Central Committee of Cambodia. By March, he had to go into hiding when his name appeared on a list of people wanted for questioning in connection with leftist activities. Saloth Sar escaped to North Vietnam, where he made contact with a Viet Minh unit. With support and cooperation from the much better-organized Vietnamese Communists, Saloth Sar arranged for a Cambodian Central Committee meeting early in 1964. The Central Committee called for armed struggle against the Cambodian government, (rather ironically) for self-reliance in the sense of independence from the Vietnamese Communists, and for a revolution based on the agrarian proletariat, or peasantry, rather than the working class as Marx envisioned it. When Prince Sihanouk unleashed another crack-down against leftists in 1965, a number of elites such as teachers and college students fled the cities and joined the nascent Communist guerrilla movement taking shape in the countryside. In order to become revolutionaries, however, they had to give up their books and drop out. They would become the first members of the Khmer Rouge. Khmer Rouge Take-Over of Cambodia In 1966, Saloth Sar returned to Cambodia and renamed the party the CPK: Communist Party of Kampuchea. The party began to plan for a revolution, but was caught off-guard when peasants across the country rose up in anger over the high price of food in 1966; the CPK was left standing. It wasnt until January 18, 1968, that the CPK started its uprising, with an attack on an army base near Battambang. Although the Khmer Rouge did not overrun the base entirely, they were able to seize a weapons cache which they turned against the police in villages across Cambodia. As violence escalated, Prince Sihanouk went to Paris, then ordered protesters to picket the Vietnamese embassies in Phnom Penh. When the protests got out of hand, between March 8 and 11, he then denounced the protesters for destroying the embassies as well as ethnic Vietnamese churches and homes. The National Assembly learned of this capricious chain of events and voted Sihanouk out of power on March 18, 1970. Although the Khmer Rouge had consistently railed against Sihanouk in its propaganda, the Chinese and Vietnamese communist leaders convinced him to support the Khmer Rouge. Sihanouk went on the radio and called for the Cambodian people to take up arms against the government, and fight for the Khmer Rouge. Meanwhile, the North Vietnamese army also was invading Cambodia, pressing the Cambodian army back to less than 25 kilometers from Phnom Penh. Cambodian Genocide In the name of agrarian communism, the Khmer Rouge decided to completely and immediately remake Cambodian society as a utopian farming nation, free of all foreign influence and the trappings of modernity. They immediately abolished all private property and seized all products of field or factory. The people who lived in cities and towns, some 3.3 million, were driven out to work in the countryside. They were labeled depositees, and were given very short rations with the intention of starving them to death. When party leader Hou Youn objected to the emptying of Phnom Penh, Pol Pot labeled him a traitor; Hou Youn disappeared. Pol Pots regime targeted intellectuals, including anyone with an education, or with foreign contacts, as well as anyone from the middle or upper classes. Such people were tortured horrifically, including by electrocution, pulling out of finger and toenails, and being skinned alive, before they were killed. All of the doctors, the teachers, the Buddhist monks and nuns, and the engineers died. All of the national armys officers were executed. Love, sex, and romance were outlawed, and the state had to approve marriages. Anyone caught being in love or having sex without official permission was executed. Children were not allowed to go to school or to play, they were expected to work and would be summarily killed if they balked. Incredibly, the people of Cambodia did not really know who was doing this to them. Saloth Sar, now known to his associates as Pol Pot, never revealed his identity or that of his party to the ordinary people. Intensely paranoid, Pol Pot reportedly refused to sleep in the same bed two nights in a row for fear of assassination. The Angka included only 14,000 members, but through secrecy and terror tactics, they ruled a country of 8 million citizens absolutely. Those people who were not killed immediately worked in the fields from sun-up to sun-down, seven days a week. They were separated from their families, ate in communal dining messes, and slept in military-style barracks. The government confiscated all consumer goods, piling vehicles, refrigerators, radios, and air conditioners up in the streets and burning them. Among the activities utterly banned were music-making, prayer, using money and reading. Anyone who disobeyed these restrictions ended up in an extermination center or got a swift ax-blow to the head in one of the Killing Fields. Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge sought nothing less than the reversal of hundreds of years of progress. They were willing and able to erase not only the symbols of modernization but also the people associated with it. Initially, the elites bore the brunt of Khmer Rouge excesses, but by 1977 even peasants (base people) were being massacred for offenses such as using happy words. Nobody knows exactly how many Cambodians were murdered during Pol Pots reign of terror, but the lower estimates tend to cluster around 1.5 million, while others estimate 3 million, out of a total population of just over 8 million. Vietnam Invades Throughout Pol Pots reign, border skirmishes flared from time to time with the Vietnamese. A May 1978 uprising by non-Khmer Rouge communists in eastern Cambodia prompted Pol Pot to call for the extermination of all Vietnamese (50 million people), as well as of the 1.5 million Cambodians in the eastern sector. He made a start on this plan, massacring more than 100,000 of the eastern Cambodians by the end of the year. However, Pol Pots rhetoric and actions gave the Vietnamese government a reasonable pretext for war. Vietnam launched an all-out invasion of Cambodia and overthrew Pol Pot. He fled to the Thai borderlands, while the Vietnamese installed a new, more moderate communist government in Phnom Penh. Continued Revolutionary Activity Pol Pot was put on trial in absentia in 1980, and sentenced to death. Nonetheless, from his hideout in the Malai district of Banteay Meanchey Province, near the Cambodia/Thailand border, he continued to direct Khmer Rouge actions against the Vietnamese-controlled government for years. He announced his retirement in 1985, supposedly due to problems with asthma, but continued to direct the Khmer Rouge behind the scenes. Frustrated, the Vietnamese attacked the western provinces and drove the Khmer guerrillas into Thailand; Pol Pot would live in Trat, Thailand for several years. In 1989, the Vietnamese withdrew their troops from Cambodia. Pol Pot had been living in China, where he underwent treatment for facial cancer. He soon returned to western Cambodia but refused to take part in negotiations for a coalition government. A hardcore of Khmer Rouge loyalists continued to terrorize the western regions of the country and waged guerrilla war on the government. In June of 1997, Pol Pot was arrested and put on trial only for the murder of his friend Son Sen. He was sentenced to house arrest for the remainder of his life. Death and Legacy On April 15, 1998, Pol Pot heard the news on a Voice of America radio program that he was going to be turned over to an international tribunal for trial. He died that night; the official cause of death was heart failure, but his hasty cremation raised suspicions that it might have been suicide. In the end, it is difficult to assess Pol Pots legacy. Certainly, he was one of the bloodiest tyrants in history. His delusional plan for reforming Cambodia did set the country back, but it hardly created an agrarian utopia. Indeed, it is only after four decades that Cambodias wounds are beginning to heal, and some sort of normalcy is returning to this utterly ravaged nation. But a visitor does not even have to scratch the surface to find the scars of Cambodias Orwellian nightmare under the rule of Pol Pot. Source: Becker, Elizabeth. When the War Was Over: Cambodia and the Khmer Rouge Revolution, Public Affairs, 1998. Kiernan, Ben. The Pol Pot Regime: Race, Power, and Genocide in Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge, Hartford: Yale University Press, 2008. Short, Philip. Pol Pot: Anatomy of a Nightmare, New York: MacMillan, 2006.

Writing a Short Story

Writing a Short Story A short story is considered one that is five thousand words or less. When creating a short story, a writer will describe as much detail as possible within a limited number of words and action. Often these objects or actions become symbolic which evokes thought on the reader’s part. In addition, it has to get off to a very fast start which means you have to grab the reader’s attention in the first paragraph. This is no time for boring drawn out sentences. Every sentence has to have a punch to it, be able to signify multiple meanings or descriptions. Use a limited number of characters. There isn’t time to go into length, so limit your story to three or four. Use just a few characters and magnify them, make them larger than life. Make the story’s beginning as close to the climax as possible, for example: make the short story about an event just before the conclusion. Don’t drag in a year’s worth of problems. Short stories usually have some sort of meaning behind them. Know what this meaning is and develop the characters and setting around it to emphasize that point. Limit the story to a brief period in time usually covering only a couple of scenes leading up to the major event. Remember, every word and action you write has to point towards the meaning and conclusion. If a word seems awkward or out of place, delete it and replace it with another or change the whole sentence around. A short story has no room for unnecessary words. Develop your characters so that you know them intimately. You may never use all those details in your short story but you’ll be able to convey their character more effectively if you make it a point to know everything about them. Show their personality traits by including possible habits or movements. Describe a nervous woman by having her chew on her fingernails which were short and ragged. By limiting the number of characters you have in the story, you’ll be able to make it a meaningful story that conveys its message effectively. Know what scenes you will use in the plot and outline them carefully to make them flow into one another effortlessly. Use a limited number of scenes but make an impact with each of them. Remember to use every single opportunity to create symbolism towards the story’s main goal. When you begin writing the short story, it’s best to start with a sentence that’s packed with action and promise. Since it’s so short, the characters and setting needs to be introduced right away and the beginning of the plot revealed. Pull the reader along by filling their senses with vivid images that become alive in their minds. Explain situations and describe settings by using dialogue and action. As soon as you start the story, you should be going straight to the top where the climax explodes. No digressions along the way or you’ll lose the reader. Writing a short story requires a precision in planning the whole outline. There can be no wandering or musings. The story has to start with a bang and every single word used in the short story has to be able to convey symbolism or perform multiple tasks. Dialogue can be used to show the setting as well as a person’s character all at the same time. Above all, it needs to flow easily and quickly, carrying the reader from the beginning to end.